K-C^^WC-X ^.A/^i:^JJV^:*^^^.* 




Class _^ ^"yb.^/ 

Book i_ 

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CJiEQilGUT DEFOSm 



An Inductive Study of 
Standards of Right 

BY 

MATTHEW HALE WILSON 

Professor of Philosophy and Education 
in Park College 




BOSTON: RICHARD G. BADGER 

TORONTO: THE COPP CLARK CO., LIMITED 



Copyright, 1916, by Richard G. Badger 



All Rights Reserved 






FEB -5.1917 



Thb Gorhau Friiss, Boston, TJ. S. A. 
PRINTED IN THB UNITED STATES OF AUBRICA. 



'Gi..A453912 



TO 

CHARLES HUGHES JOHNSTON 



PREFACE 

I WISH to thank Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston, of the 
University of Illinois; Dr. Frank Blackmar, of the Uni- 
versity of Kansas; Professor Alfred Hall-Quest, of the 
University of Virginia, Professor Homer W. Josslyn, now 
vs^ith the Carnegie Foundation, and Mr. Walter M. Wolfe for 
the help that they have been to me in v^riting this book. Dr. 
Johnston encouraged me to undertake a work of this nature in 
moral education and made many practical suggestions. Dr. 
Blackmar gave me valuable hints on the sociology of the sub- 
jects treated. Professor Hall-Quest read all the book in man- 
uscript, Professor Josslyn made constructive criticisms and 
Mr. Wolfe read the proof. 

I acknowledge with pleasure the ready and interested re- 
sponse of a wide circle of prominent professional and business 
men and women who have defined for me their essential prob- 
lems, the virtues required to meet them, and the advancements 
now being made in their work. My students have carried on 
an extensive correspondence in their efforts to obtain informa- 
tion on fundamental moral problems. Some of the papers 
they have written have been helpful especially those of Miss Mil- 
dred Wickes and Mr. Ralph White. 

The bibliography at the close of the book has been supple- 
mented by an extensive correspondence. Where the references are 
few in number, there has been special effort to obtain first- 
hand information; and where the literature has been plentiful, 
abundant reference has been made to it. My contribution to 
the field of moral education lies in the organization of material 
already given about a plan which is somewhat unique rather 
than in the discovery of new material. I have made liberal 

5 



6 PREFACE 

use of the literature covering the wide range of subjects treat- 
ed in this book. 

The plan and purpose of the book are stated in the Intro- 
duction. 

October, 191 6. M. H. W. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I A SURVEY OF THE FIELD.. ii 

Life assumes definite forms — The importance 
of morals — Morality is a growth — The pur- 
pose of this book — Special theories needed — 
A general theory needed — Growth changes 
many ideals — Religion and morals — The teach- 
er — Method of study — The student — Con- 
clusion. 

PART I 

The School 

II THE TEACHER 23 

Teaching and the aim of education — The 
primary task of the teacher — Need of special 
knowledge — The fields of knowledge — The 
pupil's point of view — Individual differences — 
Discipline — The teacher and leadership — De- 
velopment of personality — Conclusion — Ques- 
tions. 

III THE PUPIL 33 

The High School period, the time of adol- 
escence — The moral value of Literature, His- 
tory, and Manual Work or Household Arts — 
The teacher — Discipline — Physical training 
and athletics — Fraternities — Co-education — 
The family — The community — The school and 
co-operation — Questions. 

PART II 

The Professions 

IV THE PHYSICIAN 47 

I Characteristics of the ideal physician, 
(i) The medical student — (2) Firmness — (3) 
Secrecy — (4) Sympathy — (5) Notice of dan- 
7 



8 CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

ger — (6) Counsel — (7) Temperance. 

II Routine and other ethical problems, 
(i) Visits — (2) Consultations — (3) Interfer- 
ence — ^(4) The split fee — (5) Quacks — (6) 
Charity — (7) Public hygiene — Questions. 
V THE LAWYER 55 

Development of the lawyer class — Classes of 
lawyers — The attorney and the client — The 
lawyer and the judge — ^The relation of the at- 
torney to other attorneys — Unjust causes — 
Confidence — Questions. 
VI THE CLERGYMAN 64 

Unity of the race — Religion defined — Aim 
and method of clergyman — Problems : Self-sat- 
isfaction of people, men, amusements, Sabbath, 
social problems, salary — Virtues: purity, hon- 
esty, truthfulness, independence, earnestness, 
sacrifice, charity — Questions. 
VII THE EDITOR 72 

The public must be pleased — The difficulty 
of getting accurate news — What constitutes 
news — Papers suggest scandal and crime — 
News not specially noted — The policy of the 
paper — History of the newspaper — Advertis- 
ing — Advance movements — Questions. 

PART III 

Business 

VIII THE BANKER 83 

A bank is a business — Safe Loans, credits, 
character, age of borrower, amount advanced 
— Retain and secure customers — Increase de- 
posits — Ready money — Speculation — Local 
business — Reform needed — Virtues — Honesty 
— Worthy of confidence — Secrecy — Good 
example — Courtesy — Temperance — Ques- 
tions. 



CONTENTS 9 

Chapter Page 

IX TRADE , 90 

Early ideal of trade — The problem in mod- 
ern trade — Advantages of competition — (a) 
Permits cut in the price — (b) Regulates the 
supply — (c) Increased wages — (d) Demands 
greater intelligence — Child labor — Immigration 
— Brokers — Competition between capital and 
capital — Value of character in trade — New 
ideals in trade — Questions. 
X CORPORATIONS 100 

Growth of corporations — Differences be- 
tween corporations — Corporations created by 
law and individual initiative — Benefits of cor- 
porations — Evils of corporations — Control of 
corporations — Advancement — Questions. 
XI LABOR UNIONS no 

The growth of labor unions — The causes of 
labor unions — The advantages of labor unions 
— Weapons used by labor unions — (a) Strike 

— (b) The closed shop — (c) The boycott — 
Agreements — • Politicians — Advancements — 
— Questions. 

XII INSURANCE 120 

Insurance reduces risk — Extent of insurance 
— Variety of insurance — Business and insur- 
ance — The family and insurance — Principles of 
insurance — Forms of insurance — Insurance pro- 
motes business — Insurance agents — Reforms — 
— Questions. 

XIII WOMEN IN BUSINESS 130 

The presence of women in industry — The 
change in the nature of woman's work — Her 
new environment — (a) Physical conditions 

— (b) Economic and moral conditions — Com- 
petition with men — The home — The necessity 
of women in industry — Advancements — Ques- 
tions. 



lO 



CONTENTS 



PART IV 

The Government 
Chapter Page 

XIV POLITICAL PARTIES 143 

Definition of a political party — The growth 
of political parties — ^The disadvantages of po- 
litical parties — The advantages of political par- 
ties — Politicians — The rise of parties — Ad- 
vancements — Questions. 
XV MUNICIPAL CONTROL 153 

Extent of the interests of a city government 
— Growth in city control — The water supply 
— Transportation — Municipal amusements — 
Education — Tenements — Charities — Police 
corruption — Taxes — Civic improvement — Con- 
trol of public utilities — Questions. 

PART V 

The Family 

XVI PARENTS 163 

Introduction — Marriage — Dangers of fam- 
ily life — Parenthood — ^Three problems in rear- 
ing children — Large families — Advancements 
— Divorce — Questions. 

XVII CHILDREN :•••.• ^72 

Introduction — The family central in child 
training — Child morality: (a) Difference in 
perspective — (b) The child is non-moral (c) 
The boy and his gang — (d) Temperamental 
variations (e) Sense of responsibility (f) Obe- 
dience (g) Intensity of interest — Moral con- 
ceptions; (a) Unity of life, self-control, grati- 
tude^ — The growth of the world — Questions. 

PART VI 
A Social Contrast 

XVIII THE CITY 185 

Cities are great social centers — The difficul- 



CONTENTS 



II 



Page 

ties of moral living in a city — The city is 
viewed as superior to the country — City dvi^ell- 
ers need a cosmopolitan mind — Strong men in 
the city are imitated by many — Spencer's con- 
ception — Questions. 

XIX THE FARM 192 

Introduction — The farmer as a neighbor — 
Illness and accident, fences, dogs, emergencies, 
roads — Schools — Churches — Government — 
Business relations — The family — Hired help 
— Questionable characters — Advancements — 
Questions. 

PART VII 
Abnormal Conditions 

XX CHARITY 203 

Introduction — Two christian principles 
noted — Causes of poverty — Three methods of 
relief — The extent of charity — Philanthropy 
as a profession — Overlapping of work — Mod- 
ern charity — Questions. 
XXI THE CRIMINAL 212 

When persons are judged as criminals — 
Types of criminals — Criminal madmen — Born 
criminals — Criminals by habit — ^The occasion- 
al criminals — Criminals by passion — Causes of 
crime — Physical and mental traits of criminals 
— Methods of treating criminals — Advance- 
ments — ^The indeterminate sentence — Asylums 
for drunkards — Simplification of legal proce- 
dure — Group crimes — Questions. 
XXII THE SALOON 223 

Growth of the Prohibition movement — The 
internal revenue act — The amount of liquor 
consumed — The saloon as a social center — The 
saloon and the defeated — The attitude of the 
saloon toward law and politics — The saloon and 
criminals — Reform organizations and measures 
— The aim of the prohibitionists — Questions. 



12 



CONTENTS 



PART VIII 

Psychology 

Chapter Page 

XXIII MENTAL HYGIENE 237 

Perception — Attention — Habit — Mem- 
ory — Thinking — Open-Mindedness — 
Readings — Action — Questions. 

XXIV EMOTIONAL HYGIENE 246 

Introduction — Instincts — Healthy feel- 
ings — (a) Aesthetic feelings— (b) Intellec- 
tual feelings — (c) Personal — James- Lange 
Theory of emotions — Reason and feelings — 
Practical suggestions— Questions. 

XXV VOLITIONAL HYGIENE 255 

The biological conception — Freedom — Me- 
ditation — Initiative — The obstructed will — 
The impulsive will — Habits — Questions. 

PART IX 

Supplementary Topics 



XXVI PLAY 267 

Play is an instinctive form of action — Play 
is a means of physical education — Play is an 
instrument of mental development — The mor- 
al life is strengthened by play — There are 
grades of play — ^The relation of play to work — 
Amusements and play — High school problems 
— Jokes — Questions. 
XXVII MANNERS ;•;•••. ^76 

The reason for manners — Variations in man- 
ners-^ — Manners as a means of self expression: 
Introductions, calls, invitations, hotels, conver- 
sations, telephoning, smoking, chaperons, bus- 
ness, dress — The right spirit — The Boy Scouts 
of America-— Business success — Questions. 



CONTENTS . 13 

Chapter Page 

XXVIII THE FRIEND 285 

Uses of the term friend — Conditions that 
make for unity of life — Conformity to funda- 
mental moral laws — Conformity to the finer so- 
cial laws — The need of friendship — Friendship 
as a practical force — The number of friends — 
Conclusion — Questions. 
XXIX CONCLUSION 293 

Special tasks require special virtue — All vir- 
tues are needed by each person — Three fun- 
damental virtues — Skill — The end of life — 
The place of pleasure in life — Rewards and 
penalties — ^The highest type of morality — 
Questions. 

INDEX 317 



AN INDUCTIVE STUDY OF STANDARDS OF 

RIGHT 



An Inductive Study of Standards 
of Right 



CHAPTER I 



A SURVEY OF THE FIELD 



Life Assumes Definite Forms, Community life has become 
organized in certain definite ways. It has churches, homes, a 
government, business houses, professional men, schools, fashions, 
manners, etc. When a new community is entered, the same 
general forms of life present themselves. Of course there will 
be variations in development, but the common factors can easily 
be found. Schools are a natural part of a community's life. 
Business houses are accepted as a matter of fact. Churches 
are found everywhere; a government is desired by all people, 
and family life is the normal condition in society. The life 
of each community has organized itself in stereotyped ways. 

The Importance of Morals. The most significant thing 
about this organized life is not the goods which people possess, 
the clothes that they wear, or any other external thing. It is 
the moral life which controls and modifies all forms of activ- 
ity. There is a constant effort on the part of each person to 
define for himself what is right and what is wrong. All the 
concrete acts of life call for such judgments. To ask my 
neighbor to keep his children in quarantine when they have 
scarlet fever means — is it right for him to do so. To loan 
money at twenty per cent, means — is it right to make such a 
business deal. To charge a patient two hundred dollars for 
an operation raises the question as to whether it is right. 

II 



12 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

Morality is a Growth, At first it would appear that the 
moral life is one great jumble of specific requirements which 
are in no way connected. Because a community at first glance 
may show no organization, its little understood moral life may 
seem an indefinite number of unrelated moral requirements. 
But as social life breaks into groups, as for example the family, 
the church and the state, so its moral trend appears under cer- 
tain well-defined forms; for with every organized activity of 
men, we find a related system of moral requirements growing 
out of such activity. These moral requirements are of intense 
interest to all persons. They are never separate from the 
problems facing men every day. They arise in connection 
with constant human interests. The doctor finds in the course 
of his professional career that there are certain things which 
for him, as a doctor, are right and others which are wrong. 
*The concensus of opinion about what is right and what is 
wrong in the medical profession is embodied in a small pam- 
phlet edited by the American Medical Association, and which 
may be possessed by each physician for his careful guidance. 

In banking the question is sometimes raised as to what per 
cent of interest should be charged on farm loans. A man who 
would collect an excessive rate of interest would be looked 
upon as one engaged in a sharp practice, and would be criti- 
cised by those who are in the legitimate banking business. 

Both in banking and in medicine may be found a large num- 



*There has recently been a dispute as to whether or not a doctor 
should "split a fee," meaning by this, should a surgeon give to a 
local practitioner who secures for him an operation, a portion of 
the compensation received for his work. Constantly facing the 
question whether or not this was a fair practise, the medical pro- 
fession came to define this act as unjust and to embody its de- 
cision in its code of right and wrong, so that any doctor may 
know the attitude of the most conscientious of his colleagues on 
this moral question. 



A Survey of the Field 13 

ber of accepted moral guides which indicate what is right for 
men in these lines of activity. Moral guides are the results 
of strenuous efforts in repeated trials to determine that which 
is right. The same is true of law, business, teaching, parent- 
hood, childhood, amusements, or any other organized form of 
life. Moral life is a growth and it becomes defined as persons 
seek to do that which is right in their different lines of activity. 

The Purpose of this Book, This book gives a panoramic 
view of the main activities of living and points out in each of 
these activities, those great moral principles which men have 
selected to be their guides to correct conduct. It would be 
very easy for this book to degenerate into an enumeration of 
small moral problems with apparently no connection between 
them. One could take from the field of business enough il- 
lustrations to fill a volume, and while from such a mass of 
material might be drawn some general conclusions as to what 
is right or wrong in business, there would result a very dis- 
torted view of the moral life of the community. It is quite 
impossible to treat the great mass of small moral problems 
that arise. The most we can hope to do is: first, to present 
the most striking problems found in each form of social activ- 
ity; second, to show the virtues required to meet these diffi- 
culties; third, to indicate new ideals that are being formulated; 
fourth, to draw general conclusions as to the moral principles 
upon which all men agree; and fifth, to suggest differences 
which arise because of diverse activities in which men are en- 
gaged. No abstract moral theories of what is right or wrong 
will be presented. 

Special Theories Needed. In order that adequate moral 
guidance may be given students of Ethics, it will be necessary 
to examine the foundations of our beliefs. When the Family 
is treated, a theory of family life and of life in general is nec- 
essary. When Abnormal Conditions are discussed, an hy- 



14 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

pothesis concerning the reasons for such conditions and their 
relation to normal life will be needed. When Government is 
analyzed, some conclusion as to its nature and its bearing on 
life must be reached. When Business is studied, a theory of 
trade and an appreciation of the significance of business prob- 
lems become necessary. When Mental, Emotional, and Vo- 
litional Hygiene are reviewed, an hypothesis concerning what 
constitutes a true psychology will be desired. In all our dis- 
cussion a general theory of life will have to be assumed by the 
writer because of the constant demand of the reader for it. 

A General Theory Needed, What general view concern- 
ing the world is most true to the facts of nature and life it- 
self? It can be stated briefly by saying that physical nature 
has a real but subordinate place in the world system in its re- 
lation to life, and that the most significant thing about life is 
growth. 

Once admit that there is growth in the world and its re- 
juvenation becomes a possibility. If things must stay as they 
are, then fatalism has had the last word. If life may unfold, 
then progress becomes possible. But does growth necessarily 
mean progress? What survives in literature? Only the best. 
What is carried forward in biography but stories of achieve- 
ment, and records of sins that have prevented forward strides? 
What science persists but that which has been found to have 
worth? The survival of ideas depends on their value, and 
there is enough evidence for us to believe in the survival of 
what man has found to be beneficial. Yet, if we ask the ques- 
tion, and we certainly have the right, as to whether there is 
sufficient data to prove conclusively that a right moral order 
will finally prevail, we must answer that this can hardly 
be demonstrated. But the testimony of faith may be added 
to that of reason, although faith is of a different order, and 
through faith and reason we may say that right will control. 



A Survey of the Field 15 

By faith IS meant the conviction that right will prevail in the 
long run although there may not be sufficient evidence now 
to prove it conclusively. By faith and reason we are able to 
grasp that which is of infinite worth — the triumph of virtue 
and the establishment of a permanent moral order. Doubt- 
less all our struggles on behalf of morality are hastening the 
day when virtue will control. Such a view places a direct re- 
sponsibility on us to so strive in the present that the right 
may prevail finally in the social order. If men are able to 
hold in a broad way to the philosophy of life which has been 
suggested they can turn with a constructive method of ap- 
proach to the various problems of morals as they present them- 
selves in the Family, the State, Business, Education, etc. 

Growth Changes Many Ideals, The study of moral prob- 
lems will alter our conceptions of right. Let us take, for ex- 
ample, the old idea of the criminal. The law once judged a 
criminal as in full possession of his faculties, as a normal per- 
son who wilfully committed crime. But criminology has 
shown that a large per cent, of criminals are physically defec- 
tive, and it is a serious question whether any of them are 
normal persons. A study of the facts of life in the field of 
crime leads to the treatment of the criminal as a defective per- 
son. Another illustration will show how the careful investi- 
gation of facts defines moral responsibility for us anew. A 
few years ago comparatively little was said about child labor 
and the sweat shops. When conditions became known, as they 
bore on physical health and social welfare, agitation began in 
earnest and measures were taken to alter these conditions. A 
careful consideration of the facts in the case has altered the at- 
titude of our nation toward the liquor business. As its detri- 
mental influence on health, business, and politics became 
thoroughly understood, it ceased to be popular. In the past, 
big business was often conducted with little regard for the 



l6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

public welfare. Money barons thought that any interference 
with their business on the part of the State was not justified. 
Yet today there is a growing sentiment that there should be 
more social control of unrestrained individualism in business. 
So any topic in this book might show how the good is being 
carried forward and how new ideals of right conduct are ris- 
ing, defining more sharply than ever before what constitutes 
moral obligation. Now, if our moral life is a development, it 
stands to reason that the first attempts to determine right will 
be unreliable when compared with the mature standards de- 
termined by long series of efforts, and it would be unfair to 
judge by present standards a man who lived in an earlier 
period when moral ideals were not so carefully formulated. 
To judge any individual you must take into consideration the 
day in which he lived. 

Religion and Morals. While the fields of religion and 
morals are not co-terminous, yet they have always been recog- 
nized as vitally connected. Religion has given to morality 
breadth, permanence, and hope. Religion lessens the isolation 
of our tasks, grounds them in a far-reaching moral order, and 
gives promise that the outcome in the future will be well. At 
what point does religion enter into the problems and ideals 
defined in this book? Wherever definite moral standards have 
been formulated under the influence of religion. Our concep- 
tion of indiscriminate giving as charity has been largely deter- 
mined by religion. The newer conception of charity as an aid 
to self-support has replaced the older conception in part and it 
has in it an element of religion. The gradual decay of the 
opinion that slavery is justifiable may be largely traced to the 
influence of religion. The teaching of religion has been noted 
in this book wherever it has entered public life and has caused 
people to formulate safer and nobler codes of conduct. But 
no special form of religion has been promulgated throughout 



A Survey of the Field 17 

the following pages. What has been done has been rather to 
indicate the actual moral ideals of society as now formulated. 
It will suffice to suggest in this opening chapter that many of 
our moral standards owe their present form, in part, to re- 
ligion. Another volume could well be written, pointing out 
the agreements and disagreements of our present moral stand- 
ards with religion. 

The Teacher, In teaching this book the instructor will find 
it needful to be a student together with his pupils. He should 
take the place of an advanced pupil, consider with his class the 
evidence gathered on any moral question, and formulate with 
them what seems to be right or wrong. There are so many 
disputed points and so many places in which there is no agree- 
ment on moral matters, that it is unfair on the part of the 
student to require a complete and definite answer to all ques- 
tions. The teacher must be a learner; he should gather all 
available material upon the subject under discussion and, with 
the evidence in view, according to his best judgment, formu- 
late a guide to conduct. This may not satisfy those who want 
a complete moral guide, one as definite as is available in mathe- 
matics. Yet the teacher should not suppose that there is total 
disagreement of judgment concerning right conduct. There 
is a concensus of opinion in every line of activity, a certain core 
of recognized truth which the teacher should discover and pre- 
sent as the settled convictions of those engaged in that work. 
In other words, the teacher should bring before the students 
the outstanding problems of a profession or social activity and 
the recognized solution of those problems, together with the 
advances which have been made to the present time. He 
should not be engrossed with the minor uncertain problems still 
unsettled. To do so is purely wasteful inasmuch as there is 
much of recognized moral worth in any regular field of hu- 
man endeavor. 



1 8 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

Method of Study. The text and the questions together 
present some phase of life in such a way that its significant 
problems may be discerned and the virtues necessary to meet 
them appreciated. It would be well for the teacher to send the 
pupils with note books to men engaged in the kind of work 
which they may be studying at the time, and have them bring 
to the class the results of their interviews. For instance, the 
questions on the lawyer could be divided into four or five sec- 
tions, the lawyers in the community assigned to four or five or 
more students and their written answers read in class. It has 
been a common practice for the author to require his students 
to write to different lawyers, asking them three questions:^ 

What are the most important problems you face as a lawyer? 

What virtues are required to meet these problems? 

What moral developments are taking place in your profes- 
sion? 

If each member of the class were required to write to five 
lawyers or even more, and the material collected and reviewed 
in class with the teacher, it would quickly become evident what 
lawyers consider their outstanding problems, their necessary 
virtues, and the lines of progress in their profession. This can 
and should be done with almost every general topic. It needs 
to be repeated that this book is not an attempt to impose on 
the students a preconceived moral system. It is an effort to 
induce them to view moral life in a scientific way, to appreciate 
its problems after a consideration of the factSj and to draw 
for themselves conclusions as to what is right and what is 
wrong. An excellent way to teach Ethics would be to have 
the students consult with different persons until they have gath- 
ered sufficient data for valid conclusions. It would be better 
still if they could pass through the actual moral experiences of 
men in life's different activities, at the same time being taught 
by those who have met successfully vital problems. But of 



A Survey of the Field I9 

course this is impossible. The next best thing is to do as has 
been suggested, — consult with those who have faced certain 
problems and have solved them with satisfaction to themselves. 

The Student, A certain amount of modesty should charac- 
terize the student who begins the study of The Right. He 
has been taught by society concerning a great many matters 
and has a fund of moral information, but he does not know 
the problems which face the people in the different professions, 
neither does he feel deeply the virtues necessary to meet these 
difficulties. Yet it is of superlative importance that every 
young person be keenly aware of what is expected of him in 
society. The moral life is of supreme significance to every in- 
dividual, and the manner in which he answers the questions as 
to what is right or wrong will determine more than any other 
one thing his happiness and his success. The student should 
come to this study with an earnest desire to discover for him- 
self what will enable him to be a man of worth to his fellows 
and deserving of self-respect. Approaching the study of these 
problems with an open mind and an earnest purpose, he will 
find experienced people willing to co-operate with him and 
guide him in his moral life. If he shows an arrogant spirit 
and gives the impression that he has these problems solved, he 
will get little help from those who really want to aid him. 

Conclusion. The purpose of this book is avowedly practical 
in that through investigation it attempts to give guidance in 
life's fundamental moral problems. Through repeated efforts 
to discern what is right, the student will gain moral power 
and moral insight, so that in facing new situations he may 
reach more satisfactory conclusions than if he had not had this 
practical discipline. Naturally a theory of moral life will 
formulate itself in the student's mind as he works from one 
problem to another, and he will discern three things: First, 
that settled moral convictions are products of human experi- 



20 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

ence; second, that a concensus of opinion is usually the best 
moral guide; and third, that the moral life is a growth, and 
that, as we are loyal to the best today, we make it possible for 
those who follow to be loyal to a better standard in the future. 



PART I 
THE SCHOOL 



CHAPTER 11 



THE TEACHER 



Teaching and the Aim of Education, Education is of two 
kinds: that which is given hy the school and that which is 
acquired from environment without regular instruction, from 
parents, friends and business associates. The latter is practical 
but takes a long time to gain, while the great advantage of 
the former is, that valuable information may be given in sys- 
tematized form, largely without undesirable experiences accom- 
panying it, and a great amount of time may thus be saved. In 
giving to society this formal knowledge the teacher inevitably 
meets certain problems. The teacher^s task will be greatly 
simplified if he knows just what is the aim of education. Is 
it bread and butter, or culture, or knowledge, or harmonious 
development, or morality, or social efficiency or any combina- 
tion of these? This uncertainty as to the aim of education, 
coupled with the fact that the fruits of teaching are largely 
mental and hence unseen, may discourage some who want to 
see immediate results. Many teachers find it disheartening not 
**to see the chips fly.'' Yet there are many important aims, 
such as health, citizenship and industrial efficiency, that may 
be realized through training. These are definite and require 
certain obtainable knowledge for their realization. The ma- 
terial that will be used in a given course of study will depend 
largely on the aim of education. But for most teachers the 
subjects are designated by State courses of study, and the prob- 
lems which come to them are more particularly those that arise 
in connection with this assigned work. 

The Primary Task of the Teacher, The primary work of 

23 



24 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

the teacher is to train the student to think and to act correctly. 
Many pupils are alike in repeating what the book says or what 
they think the teacher desires. If they are asked "What is 
your opinion?'* they often reply **I don't know/' They never 
expect to have views of their own and they are startled into 
confusion by a question which requires thinking on their part. 
This power to weigh and consider statements and from the 
evidence to judge of the truth in a sane and balanced way, is 
what should be cultivated in pupils. Yet many teachers have 
no other ideal than hearing what the pupil can remember from 
the book. If the teacher cannot weigh and balance the worth 
of the various ideas in a subject, certainly the pupil will never 
be trained by such a person to be an efficient thinker. It is 
not well for a teacher to look at a book and ask a question, 
then look at the book and ask another question and so on 
throughout the recitation. Such a one might be called a "book 
teacher." The only purpose of the text is to open up some 
field of truth. Knowledge in any department is so infinitely 
varied and attractive that it never has been stated in the best 
possible way in the book. The teacher who gives the student 
the feeling that he is dealing with facts that are to be found 
in the real world without, and that the knowledge that he is 
imparting interprets either nature or life, is the real teacher. 
Teachers are called to interpret common daily experiences — 
the book is only another person discussing the same material — 
and the world of reality about which the book speaks should 
be so in evidence to the teacher that he can lay the book aside 
and convince the students of the worth of some natural phe- 
nomenon or product of thought. 

It is no longer considered sufficient to possess knowledge, — 
there is the added requirement of skill or habitual responses as 
the means of using the knowledge which has been acquired. 
The student who gains self-expression through forming sue- 



The Teacher 25 

cessful habits of conduct not only is able to use the information 
he has gathered but he has also achieved mental strength as 
well. Successful experience requires careful, persistent, and 
thorough thought. Careless thinking shows itself at once in 
crude actions. Successful action develops virility and power 
of mind. Our various acts provide just that incentive which 
is required to release the abounding energy of youth. Every 
day behavior may determine in a larger measure than ever be- 
fore what materials are to constitute the courses of study in 
the future. The successful teacher will view his work not 
only as it trains the mind, but also as it leads to action, and 
Education in the future will be defined in terms of behavior 
as well as in terms of thought. 

Need of Special Knowledge. The instructor should have 
special knowledge of the subjects he is assigned to teach. Stu- 
dents ask many questions about details and unless the teacher 
can supply this technical information the pupil will lose con- 
fidence in him. In addition to a thorough knowledge of his 
subject he should become conversant with the best methods of 
imparting it. There is a science of presenting material which 
is as necessary to good teaching as knowledge itself. The 
methods of presentation vary with different subjects and they 
should be known to each teacher. It is no longer sufficient to 
know, the teacher must also be able to tell in a clear, concise 
and attractive way, and in addition be able to guide pupils to 
study their lessons. 

The Fields of Knowledge, Every subject of value to society 
is growing, and new material is appearing which the teacher 
should possess. To be abreast of the advance made in his field 
he must constantly read and study. Time and opportunity to 
consult the new books are necessary. Persistency, economy of 
time, and sometimes the sacrifice of earnings to purchase new 
books are needed. 



26 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

The Pupil's Point of View, Sympathy is required to appre- 
ciate the pupil's point of view. A story is told which illus- 
trates the need which the teacher has of acquiring the pupil's 
way of seeing things. A professor gives an experience which 
he had while out riding with a little girl. ^"We were riding 
along together, and looking out over the broad pasture land, a 
little girl of six and I, when we saw horses grazing quietly a 
quarter of a mile or so away. There was no difficulty in rec- 
ognizing the horses as animals of full, ordinary size. And I 
was surprised into looking a second and even a third time by 
the little girl's cries of joy at seeing ^those colts,' as she insisted 
on calling them. Finally, I realized that the horses were to 
her untrained eyes colts. I even induced her to discuss the 
matter with me until I told her that they were really horses, 
and then the look of incredulous pity for my grown-up igno- 
rance gave me one of the best insights I have ever had into 
the truth of the principle that children and adults live in dif- 
ferent worlds. I also had a clearer understanding of the child 
mind at that moment from my understanding of the fact that 
if the quarter of a mile had grown into two miles, I, too, 
might have been in doubt as to whether the horses were horses 
or colts." 

Let the teacher try to write with his left hand and a new 
world of difficulties which face students will open to him. The 
pupil has little interest in the views of older people. His own 
world is tremendously real to him. And the teacher's efforts 
are in vain unless he understands the mind of the pupil. The 
student will not be interested in his remarks unless they ap- 
peal to him in the presentation. Teaching is "^much like the 
science of war. Nothing is simpler or more definite than the 
principles of either. In war, all you have to do is to work 



^Genetic Psychology — Judd pp. 9-10. 
^Talks to Teachers — James pp. 9-10. 



The Teacher 27 

your enemy into a position from which the natural obstacles 
prevent him from escaping if he tries to; then to fall on him 
in numbers superior to his own, at a moment when you have 
led him to think you are far away; and so, with a minimum of 
exposure of your own troops, to hack his forces to pieces, and 
take the remainder prisoners. Just so, in teaching, you must 
simply work your pupils into such a state of interest in what 
you are going to teach him that every other object of attention 
is banished from his mind; then reveal it to him so impres- 
sively that he will remember the occasion to his dying day ; and 
finally fill him with devouring curiosity to know what the next 
steps in connection with the subjects are. The principles be- 
ing so plain, there would be nothing but victories for the mas- 
ters of science, either on the battlefield or in the school room, 
if they did not both have to make their application to an in- 
calculable quantity in the shape of the mind of their opponent. 
The mind of your own enemy, the pupil, is working away from 
you as keenly and eagerly as is the mind of the commander on 
the other side from the scientific general. Just what the re- 
spective enemies want and think, and what they know and do 
not know, are as hard things for the teacher as for the general to 
find out." The dull teacher cannot present old material in 
such a new way that it means more than before; he cannot 
arouse interest. 

Individual Differences, Teachers used to view the pupils as 
all alike, each to be put through a definite and unchangeable 
course of study. Today we recognize individual differences. 
Personal interests demand that each pupil should be approached 
in a manner suited to attract him. Pupils are not to be viewed 
in the mass, but are to be seen as having different powers and 
interests. To the Greek boy, the teacher was the inspirer. 
He was the constant companion of his students. He received 
po pay for his services, and the only tie which held the pupil 



28 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

and the teacher together was likeness of tastes and interests 
and friendship. The Greek teacher understood his pupil as an 
individual. The teacher needs not only the personal knowledge 
which will enable him to instruct but also participation in the 
social life of his pupils. He will appear distant to them un- 
less he attends their parties and receptions and makes himself 
a contributor to their social life. 

Discipline. Students are alert to note any favoritism shown 
by the teacher, and are very sensitive to any injustice. In 
showing favors he should be careful that they are merited and 
that this fact is evident to all. In case of discipline fair treat- 
ment will meet the approval of almost all, but unjust treat- 
ment will arouse fierce resentment. It behooves the teacher 
to study to be just. The attitude which the teacher assumes 
in cases of discipline will be determined by the way in which 
he views the pupil. If he sees the student as growing, as one 
who, while he has faults, may leave them behind, he will be 
considerate and not unduly severe. If he thinks of his pupil as 
grown up and as fully responsible as an adult, he probably will 
not succeed very well in helpful discipline. For the fact is, 
the pupil is developing and his mistakes are generally such as 
can be corrected. 

In all cases of discipline the teacher should take into con- 
sideration the home training which the pupil has received and 
the environment in which he has lived. A pupil may be try- 
ing to do right but, having never received adequate training 
at home, may find it difficult to bend his will to meet the de- 
mands of others. Such a pupil is entitled to more considera- 
tion than one schooled by his parents to act rightly. Dis- 
honesty in written work and immorality, not merely mischief 
and selfishness, are to be reckoned with. If the teacher is sus- 
picious, his attitude will lead the pupils to deceive. Expect 
honesty on the pupil's part and the chances are in favor of such 



The Teacher 29 

a response. If the teacher expects regularity and consideration 
from the pupil he himself should be punctual and courteous. 

The Teacher and Leadership. The teacher should be a 
leader. He is training boys and girls to assume responsible 
positions in society and to become its leaders. If he has not 
the qualities of a leader it cannot be expected of him so to 
train others. The marks of leadership are three in number: 
The ability to think more rapidly and accurately than others, 
the power to express ideas clearly, and the courage to stand by 
convictions. The real teacher must be mentally alert and al- 
ways a step in advance of his pupils. But no less necessary to 
leadership is the power to express one's self. The world's 
leaders have had the power to say what they thought, perhaps 
not beautifully, but forcibly and accurately. A coward can- 
not lead. Willingness to stand for the things that appear to be 
right is an admirable quality in a leader and in a teacher. If 
a teacher is weak in one of these qualifications of leadership, it 
may be strengthened, or the other qualities may be so developed 
that the defect is not noticed. 

Development of Personality. The teacher is employed to 
enable the student to live his own life and develop his own in- 
dividuality. The pupil ought to be led to respect himself and 
his opinions and to be courageous enough to put his thoughts 
into action. The student should be trained from the crude 
opinions he may hold to those more profitable and nearer the 
truth; but the new opinions he receives should be made his 
own. He should never be expected to be the teacher's parrot. 
He should be made interesting to himself that others may be 
attracted to him. 

What Emerson says of a book applies equally well to 
teachers. ''They are for nothing but to inspire. I had better 
never seen a book than to be warped by its attractions clean 
out of my own orbit, and made a satellite instead of a system. 



30 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

The one thing in the world, of value is the active soul. This 
every man is entitled to; this every man contains within him, 
although in almost all men obstructed, and as yet unborn/' 
It is particularly noticeable in adults that they do only the 
common things. They have often suppressed every tendency 
to vary from the conduct of their fellows until the capacity to 
do the new and strikingly helpful things seems to be gone. Of 
course the child must gain those useful habits which all people 
recognize are of value but in acquiring this skill it may not be 
necessary to repress those individual forms of expression that 
give distinctive charm and value to the individual. The teacher 
has the problem of grafting the social values into young lives 
without destroying the native originality which the pupils may 
possess. 

Emerson warns us beautifully about failing to develop in- 
dividuality as teachers. In his Essay on Self-reliance he says, 
"A man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light 
which flashes across his mind from within, more than the lustre 
of the firmament of bards and sages. Yet he dismisses without 
notice his thought, because it is his. In every work of genius 
we recognize our own rejected thoughts; they come back to 
us with a certain alienated majesty. Great works of art have 
no more affecting lesson for us than this. They teach us to 
abide by our spontaneous impression with good humored in- 
flexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the 
other side. Else to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly 
good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the 
time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own 
opinion from another." If the teacher has the marks of per- 
sonality and searches for its signs in others he can develop 
those pupils who find themselves only when inspired and di- 
rected. The teacher needs strength that will cause people to 
see things as they are and should be, and then power to inspire 



The Teacher 31 

them to reach the goal of citizenship. Strength, that will 
make them act without undue thought of reward and fashion 
them into factors that will be for the betterment of society; 
strength that will leave out selfishness and hold in view the 
welfare of others is needed. 

Conclusion, To the successful teacher comes a great joy as 
he sees in his pupils the awakening of right feelings, the fash- 
ioning of the will to act habitually from high and worthy mo- 
tives, the training of the will in free obedience to self-imposed 
laws of right, and the acquiring of skill in those branches of 
knowledge that make for social service. 

QUESTIONS 

Have pupils secure answers to the questions from teachers 
and read them in class. 

1. Should the student be allowed to express an opinion 
that contradicts what the teacher has said? 

2. Is the teacher under any obligation to understand 
thoroughly a part of the real world? 

3. Is a teacher justified in rebuking with sarcasm a stu- 
dent who asks a question for information? 

4. Is it a moral obligation for a teacher to keep abreast of 
the advance made in his subject? 

5. Can you show where the teacher is called upon to sac- 
rifice ? 

6. What is the value of sympathy in a teacher? 

7. Is the teacher under any obligation to present old truths 
in new ways? 

8. Should the teacher take account of the differences in 
pupils ? 

9. How will the idea that the student is developing modify 
the teacher's conception of discipline? 



32 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

10. In discipline should a teacher consider a pupiFs com- 
panions ? 

11. What are the marks of leadership? 

12. Is a teacher doing right to repress a pupil continually? 

13. Should a teacher train the pupil to act, or primarily to 
think? 

14. Why is a teacher under obligation to study the methods 
of presenting material? 

15. Can you see any reason why the teacher should study 
expression ? 

16. In what way should the teacher practice economy? 

17. Why is the teacher under obligation to arouse interest 
in his subjects? 

18. Do any of the obligations of friendship rest on the 
teacher so far as his pupils are concerned ? 

19. Should the teacher consider the home training of his 
pupil ? 

20. What IS the effect of repression on the pupil? 

21. Which mark of leadership seems to you most essential 
for a teacher? 

22. Is the teacher under any obligation to cause a pupil to 
express himself positively? 



CHAPTER III 



THE PUPIL 



The High School Period^ the Time of Adolescence. The 
high school pupil sees all his problems from the viewpoint of 
adolescence. Shortly before the pupil enters the secondary 
school there come changes into the life of a boy which make 
him a man, and into the life of a girl by which she is trans- 
formed into a woman. They cease to be children and become 
young men and women. They no longer live individual lives 
like small children, but are interested in the group problems 
of others. They have passed the period of interest in purely 
technical work and they want that which fascinates and in- 
spires. Intellectually they are deeply interested in the causes 
of things, and religiously they are more concerned than at any 
other time in life. 

The course of study is a problem for the high school stu- 
dent. Often the courses are so dry and technical that in a few 
years after leaving school he has forgotten the names of the 
studies he had taken. This is because the course of study was 
such that it made little appeal to the adolescent mind. 

The Moral Value of Literature, History, and Manual 
Work or Household Arts. Three subjects lend themselves di- 
rectly to the cultivation of the moral life — literature, history 
and manual training or domestic arts. 

In literature ideal men and women are portrayed. Litera- 
ture abounds in ideals and the student should be stirred by its 
noble thoughts and encouraged to live a finer life for having 
been taught inspiring sentiments. If the subject is presented 
in a dry and unattractive way, it will accomplish little, but 

33 



34 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

where characters are made to live, where the nobility of men 
and women under trying circumstances is stressed so that it 
is felt, and the student thrills with the victories of the cour- 
ageous and sorrows with those defeated through their own 
faults or through the sins of others, he is being trained in the 
moral life. 

History is a record of the politics of nations and the policies 
of nations have been determined by mighty moral causes. In 
history, the student may trace the growth and culmination of 
great moral movements and be brought to a clear conscious- 
ness that the moral life is a development, that through the cen- 
turies society has made moral progress, that he has privileges 
without price because men died for them in ages past, and that 
new problems lie before him as well as old ones which men 
have solved in the past. History may give perspective to the 
moral life of a student. 

When William James was asked what changes he would 
make in the course of study to increase the ethical efficiency of 
such training, he replied: ^'1 should increase enormously the 
amount of unusual or 'motor' training relatively to the book- 
work, and not let the latter preponderate till the age of fifteen 
or sixteen. '^ When a student works with his hands, he trains 
himself in the moral life; if he works rapidly he shows he is 
no shirk. If his work is well done, he shows he is careful and 
thoughtful about his tasks. If he is careless, it at once becomes 
evident; if he is lazy, he produces little. Honest work 
strengthens an honest heart and when a large portion of the 
course of study requires motor activity a dishonest worker is 
at once exposed. We do not need courses in manual training 
so much for the practical information the students may obtain 
as for the moral and intellectual training which these subjects 



*Moral Instruction and Training in School, Vol. i M. E. Sadler, 
p. 94. 



The Pupil 35 

give. The whole course of study adds much to the moral life 
of students, and the pupil who co-operates with the authorities 
in mastering his lessons, strengthens his own moral life. 

The Teacher, Pupils are not attracted to all teachers in 
the same way or to the same extent. Because of the differ- 
ences in teachers the pupils respond to them in many ways. 
Roughly speaking it may be said the teacher is liked or dis- 
liked, and respected or not respected. The teacher to whom 
the student is attracted and who has full knowledge of his 
subjects has the greatest influence with the pupil and hence 
can help him most in his moral life. The student admires 
him for his knowledge of his subject and his power to present 
it in an attractive way. The basis of regard for a teacher, as 
far as a student is concerned, is mastery of the material he 
teaches. The student cannot come to the highest regard for 
a teacher who is lacking in knowledge and in pedagogical skill. 
When the student feels that the teacher knows, the foundation 
is laid for permanent respect. 

But the student is not only attracted to the teacher who is 
master of his subject. He feels an even closer relationship to 
the one who appreciates his pupils, who understands the stu- 
dent mind and its way of seeing things, who feels with them 
in their problems, and who actually experiences their view- 
points and attitudes. The student is attracted to such a 
teacher for he knows that in him he has a friend with all the 
wealth of meaning which that word implies. How often we 
hear the student say, "I like the teacher,'' and how much is 
implied in that statement. It means there are no problems 
that come to the students, as such, that cannot be solved in 
conference with such a teacher. Co-operation is natural be- 
tween such teachers and their pupils. The hard problem to 
solve from the student's standpoint is the teacher he does not 
like. 



36 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

Discipline, It is difficult for students to be kindly disposed 
toward those who correct them. It is hard for them to admit 
they have been wrong. The student realizes that the teacher 
not only instructs him, but is also responsible for order in the 
class room. This often causes a student to assume that the 
teacher is placed in the school room as a guard and if he can 
gain an advantage over the teacher and not get caught, it is 
all right. The student will commit faults for which he must 
be disciplined. When such is the case, the teacher should point 
out clearly to the pupil wherein he has done wrong. The stu- 
dent should be told the reason why his conduct is questionable, 
and, if possible, be brought to see it in that light. Once the 
pupil has changed his view and actually appreciates the fact 
he has committed a fault, he will not be disposed to resent 
the punishment which naturally follows, or a penalty may have 
become unnecessary. 

When a fault has been committed, the teacher in charge 
should deal with it rather than take it to a higher officer. 
When possible, punishment should be along the line of 
the offense committed. If the pupil's fault is in athletics, his 
athletic privilege might be taken away. There should always 
be an attempt to save a student and to keep him in 
school. A pupil dislikes to be whipped before the 
whole school and if he must be punished in this 
way, he should be kept after school and some one else 
should witness the punishment so that he cannot go away and 
lie about it. But let us remember that many a pupil is lost 
from the school because he did not have a teacher with a com- 
prehensive grasp of life who knew what was right and what 
wrong, and who was able to tell him again and again why he 
should refrain from a certain course of conduct. If the vision 
of the teacher is clear and he takes time to make plain the 



The Pupil 37 

reasons for his demands and does not become angry but con- 
trols his temper, he can govern most pupils. With such a 
teacher, the pupil learns to co-operate. The honor system is 
a great stimulus to right-minded pupils to refrain from faults 
and to be true to promises after they are made. 

Physical Training and Athletics. Every high school should 
give opportunity for physical training and athletics. There 
should be enough physical training to keep the body in health 
and to maintain normal strength. Those interested in intel- 
lectual progress cannot afford to neglect physical development, 
for the mind is not at its best if the body is weak or unde- 
veloped. In most schools the courses of study give little oppor- 
tunity for physical effort, yet the student is entitled to phy- 
sical education conducted by the school authorities. Apart 
from such control, the student claims the right to have his 
games and athletic contests. These contests have worth be- 
yond building up a good body. Baseball, basketball, tennis, 
and field sports are opportunities for the student's self-develop- 
ment. In these games the student stands on his own merits; 
an older sister does not work out his problems for him at 
home. He is taught to control his temper, to play the game 
according to the rules, to keep his mouth shut, to lose and not 
complain, to sink himself and his interests that the welfare of 
the team may be promoted and to be loyal. 

Every boy ought to play in the games and not simply be a 
spectator. Each student needs the benefit of such training; 
and when contests are held with other schools, if a student 
cannot be a player, he can at least be a loyal supporter. Stu- 
dent athletics bind a student body together. They lift the in- 
dividual student out of the narrow groove of his own life and 
cause him to forget himself in the interests of the school. But 
when the service of professionals is secured in order to win, 
then amateur athletics has been degraded by the deceit and 



38 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

fraud which must be practiced. There is one thing more im- 
portant than winning, and that is to gain victories fairly. Of 
course the student is under obligation to keep his life in pro- 
portion and not let his games occupy the greater part of his 
time, for work is even more necessary than play. There is a 
glow of health which those possess who engage in games which 
is of great value to them. They feel as though they could 
succeed. They are in cheerful and contented frame of mind. 
They look forward with zest to the task which lies before 
them and they have a pleasant interest in most things because 
a healthy body is constantly encouraging them. 

It often happens that all the teachers in the high schools are 
women. While this may be a great advantage to the girls, it 
sometimes causes a boy to form the conclusion that education 
is for girls rather than for boys. An increase in the number 
of men teachers in our high schools would be an aid to boys, 
for men understand their problems as women cannot. A boy 
often needs a man as a teacher, for at times only a man can 
handle him. 

Fraternities, Fraternities are a problem in many secondary 
schools, and in some schools they are forbidden by law. 
While it may not be practicable to permit fraternities in our 
high schools because they lack proper leadership on the part 
of adults, or because they are hard to control, or because most 
of the boys have homes in which they belong in the towns 
where fraternities are located, still there are certain advantages 
in a college fraternity hard to obtain in any other place. The 
members of a fraternity are bound together by a common in- 
terest. As the parents make possible a home life for the chil- 
dren, the fraternity provides a home life for its members. The 
fraternity is to the student away from home what his home was 
to him in the town from which he came. The spirit of the 
home is found in the good fraternity. The members of this 



The Pupil 39 

large family are bound together by common interests and com- 
mon problems. A fraternity always has a problem of some 
sort before it, and in the solution of these problems, leaders 
are born. Because of the diverse interests of the fraternity, 
leaders of many types are needed, some in oratory, some in 
scholarship, some in athletics, some in social life and some in 
business. 

In the fraternity, a man is free to say what he thinks. He 
can express his honest opinion and be heard w^ith consideration. 
Again, when a member has shortcomings, the older members 
do not hesitate to take him in charge and, in kindness, point 
out his faults and suggest ways of improvement. If a mem- 
ber is backward in his studies, he is helped and if he must ap- 
pear in public speaking, he is often drilled. Fraternities often 
work for their own interests rather than the interests of the 
school. They often sanction questionable practices and lay 
undue stress upon the social life. They often lead to extrava- 
gent expenditure of money and their members may form ques- 
tionable habits. But their faults are found in them because 
the older alumni will not take time to control them or because 
they are not adequately supervised. There is little question- 
able in a college fraternity as such, and much that is good. 

Co-Education. In the United States, the general practice 
of co-education in the public school prevails. Those in favor 
of co-education say that it is an economic necessity; that it 
adds moral tone to the school; that it trains in the amenities 
of life, the possession of which should be second nature; that 
it leads to an all round development, and that persons so edu- 
cated have been placed on a footing of equality. Those who 
oppose co-education say that in mental power and tempera- 
ment, there is a radical difference between the sexes. That 
since they follow different lines of work after graduation, they 
should not take the same courses of study; that the modesty 



40 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

which should characterize girls is lessened; that girls are made 
mannish and that too much time is given to social matters. 

There could be a compromise in the classroom work in 
which boys and girls recite together with the exception of the 
limited number of courses where the work is distinctive of one 
of the sexes. Social problems are not incidental from the 
angle of vision of the student. It is natural for young men 
and women to meet together and the question before the 
teacher is how to make their comradeship as natural as possi- 
ble and such as promotes the interests of both classes. There 
has been an inclination to neglect the social life of the young 
people in the past. There is as much need for a teacher of 
good manners, correct social usages, and proper games for young 
people as for any other department. While girls are to be 
treated as equals, boys ought not forget that there are certain 
courtesies that should always be shown women as such, and 
the basis of this consideration ought to be a high regard for 
womanhood. 

The Family, While attending school the student is gen- 
erally a member of some household. As a student he owes 
something to the family. A home is not a convenient stopping 
place and few children so regard it. There are many ways 
in which the student can promote the interests of the family. 
Does the average pupil take time to think, day by day, of the 
means he might use to make the life of the family more pleas- 
ant, or how he might promote its interests by contributing a 
little money he might earn to its support? If he never helps 
in a business way, he can lighten the load of the father and 
mother by a dutiful and prompt obedience to their requests. 

On the other hand, the time spent in the high school build- 
ing is not enough for the preparation of lessons for the next 
day and the student is often forced to study at home. But 
this is not easy when all meet in a common living room and 



The Pupil 41 

where the time is given over to conversation. If the student 
had a place where he could prepare his lessons it would often 
be greatly to his advantage. Of course the circumstances as 
they exist in each separate case must determine what is ad- 
visable. When a difference exists between the pupil and the 
teacher parents generally side with the pupil. It may not be 
to the advantage of the pupil but it is hard to condemn one's 
own. 

The Community, A community rightfully looks with favor 
on its students. Often school work tends to train the student 
away from the community and its interests until after a while 
he finds himself out of touch with society itself and living in 
an artificial atmosphere created by the school. This marked 
separation between the school and society ought not to exist. 
While the student has obligations to the school, his life is to 
be spent in society and if he is to be trained to meet these obli- 
gations he cannot spend his years of preparation in an atmos- 
phere foreign to it. The school should keep him in touch with 
life itself and train him to serve with greater efficiency than 
if he had not enjoyed its opportunities. 

The School and Co-operation, The school is the place 
where the student is to be trained in co-operation. He should 
learn to live, with ease and profit to himself, with his school- 
mates. He should define for himself the boundary of his own 
rights and the rights of others until he is fair in his dealings 
with his fellows. He should learn to respect the rights of 
other pupils and to lay aside his prejudices. To accuse the 
judges of prejudice because the home team loses a debate or 
a basketball match shows a lack of ability to grasp the situa- 
tion as it probably exists. The teacher is the rightfully con- 
stituted authority in the school. If the student has been taught 
co-operation and fairness he can work in harmony with almost 
any teacher. The teacher is seeking to do the right and be- 



42 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

longs to a class of workers of exceptional sympathy and tact 
and if the student has failed to adjust himself to the teachers 
of a school he should examine himself rather than condemn 
the school and see if the reasons for his failure are not within. 
As he progresses in his student life he should find himself 
more and more useful in the home and taking a more intelli- 
gent part in the affairs of the community. Again, his train- 
ing should aid him in co-operation and fair dealing with his 
fellows. The school receives the pupil at a time when the 
boundary of his interests is the family and a few relatives and 
friends. It introduces him to society. If it is successful in 
its work, the student and society become well acquainted. 
When such is the case he is taught to co-operate with society 
in all the diverse forms which it assumes. He has acquired sat- 
isfactory habits and tendencies. His general attitude is what 
it should be because he has many concrete ways of acting prof- 
itably. In short he has developed a satisfactory character. He 
has been trained to appreciate and control the values of life. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Would you feel under obligation to report a pupil who 
cheated in an examination after all had agreed to use the 
honor system? 

2. Why does literature promote the moral life? 

3. What worthy qualities do pupils discern in teachers they 
like? 

4. If a student has confessed to doing wrong and is hon- 
estly sorry for the fault and has resolved not commit it again, 
is punishment necessary? 

5. Which is more important, the welfare of any single 
player or the welfare of the whole team ? 

6. What moral obligations do all students owe to their 
parents ? 



The Pupil 43 

7. What moral benefit fn manual training or domestic 
science ? 

8. What moral value in history? 

9. Why are we under moral obligations to keep the body 
healthy? 

10. What are the advantages of high school fraternities? 
What are their disadvantages? 

11. Is the pupil generally right in cases of discipline? 

12. Is it right to slug in a football game if the opposing 
team starts it? 

13. What moral qualities are developed in co-education? 
What are some of its dangers? 

14. Is it a moral obligation to acquire good manners? 

15. Is it good sport to object constantly to the decisions of 
the referee? 

16. Should not a pupil keep trying to meet the demands of 
those in authority, even though he has made many failures? 

17. Why is special credit due the man who controls his 
temper throughout a game? 

18. Is the student justified in getting help from another in 
an examination? Is it right for a student to give help in an 
examination ? 

19. Should a student support the home team when it has 
engaged in some crooked practise? 

20. Will a boy take the problems of a boy to a woman 
teacher ? 

21. Is the reason for fighting on the school ground gen- 
erally adequate? 

22. Is it right to punish along the line of the oflFense com- 
mitted ? 

23. Is it fair to risk a spectacular play to gain honor when 
the chances are in favor of team work? 

24. In case the student does not like the teacher, under 



44 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

what obligation is that student? 

25. Why is it so hard for a student to realize that he has 
committed an offense for which he must be punished? 

26. What obligations does the student owe to the com- 



--^ munity ? 



PART II 
THE PROFESSIONS 



CHAPTER IV 



THE PHYSICIAN 



The Medical Student, A student should begin his medical 
career by securing a good preliminary education in some rec- 
ognized college or university. There he is equipped to cope 
with the greater problems which the study of medicine presents. 
Eight years of hard study lie before him and he must spend 
from three to five thousand dollars, and, in addition, lose his 
time and the opportunity to make money. After graduation, 
he should spend at least a year in some good hospital as an in- 
terne. After he begins his practice, there are the early years in 
which returns may be meagre. The medical student is sub- 
jected to great expense before he can secure any financial return. 

I. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IDEAL PHYSICIAN 

I. Firmness, There are times when the physician should 
be firm as well as tender and hopeful. His professional honor 
often calls for an adherence to duty that may alienate those 
with whom he would be friendly and may, in rare instances, 
cost him a liberal fee. But as a rule people ultimately realize 
that the doctor is acting and ordering only for the necessary 
cure of the case in hand. For example; two little girls had 
typhoid fever. They cried for candy and their too indulgent 
parents gave some to each, in disobedience to the doctor^s order. 
As a result one of the children died. The parents naturally 
centered their aiJection on the remaining girl. They would 
not believe that the candy they had given had produced the 
fatal result, and they refused to follow their physician's direc- 

47 



48 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

tions. If the child cried for candy she should have it. So 
he had to say decidedly: ''If you do not follow my advice I 
shall have to give up the case." This made them realize the 
situation and they yielded to his will. It should always be 
borne in mind that the true physician does his best for the in- 
terests of his patients and is entitled to obedience, gratitude 
and confidence. 

2. Secrecy. Professional ethics often demand absolute se- 
crecy on the part of the physician. Only when required in 
the administration of justice should he reveal that which the 
patient may wish to conceal. If an injured man comes to a 
doctor to have a wound dressed and is reluctant to tell how 
he was hurt, in most cases he may be assured that no informa- 
tion will be divulged. Suppose it is a gunshot wound in the 
face and it is imperative to know the course of the bullet^ 
whether toward the brain, the throat, or the ear. To learn 
this the surgeon must first know the direction from which the 
shot was fired. That ascertained, three questions present them- 
selves. Is the patient the victim of an assault? Was the 
wound inflicted with suicidal intent, or was the man hurt 
while attempting to harm another, the weapon being twisted 
so that he shot himself? Each problem, in regard to its pub- 
licity, makes a specific demand upon the physician's code of 
honor. Or take a case not criminal, where a family is in- 
volved. If one of the parties consults a physician and finds 
that he or she has some disease, which, if known, might 
lead to a serious misunderstanding, the doctor is in honor 
bound not to tell of it. Even in ordinary illness, doctors often 
wait for friends to make public the trouble, out of respect to 
the family. The obligation to secrecy is so binding that the 
courts frequently protect the physician. 

3. Sympathy, There are many complaints that are incur- 
able, and all that can be done is to make the sufferer com- 



The Physician 49 

fortable. In case of cancer, the sore may be dressed and kept 
clean, and a pleasant place for the patient can be provided and 
made sanitary. Whenever disease is incurable, all reasonable 
precautions for comfort should be taken and the physician may 
so advise. Sympathy for such and for all v^ho are afflicted, makes 
it easier for the patient and friends, and aids in creating an 
atmosphere which is beneficial. Understanding as we do the 
influence of the mind on the body, all legitimate means should 
be used to inspire cheer, and hope, and confidence, as these 
are aids to recovery. There are few men in the community 
who have so wide sympathy as the physician. His service is 
confined by no barrier of money, color, social position or edu- 
cation. His profession gives him a rare opportunity to realize 
that all men are brothers and that he is a servant of all. 

a. Notice of Danger, If an examination shows Bright's 
disease, consumption, cancer of the stomach, or some other se- 
rious malady, the relatives have a right to know the truth and 
should be told. The principles of Medical Ethics, published 
by the American Medical Association, says: "Ordinarily the 
physician should not be forward to make gloomy prognostica- 
tions, but should not fail on proper occasions to give timely 
notice of dangerous manifestations to the friends of the pa- 
tient; and even the patient, if absolutely necessary. The no- 
tice is at all times so peculiarly alarming when given by the 
physician that its deliverance may often be preferably assigned 
to another person of good judgment." 

4. Counsel, Many people eat more than they ought, and 
because they do not lead an active life, find they are dull and 
heavy. Others drink to excess, and some practice abuses which 
lead to weakness. Some inherit diseases that can be helped by 
treatment. In such cases, the doctor has an excellent oppor- 
tunity to advise in a practical and forceful way. If his sug- 
gestions are given with a desire to promote the welfare of the 



50 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

patient, the advice may be heeded and the gratitude of the pa- 
tient earned. 

Every doctor is solicited to do wrong. Whatever other 
qualifications a physician possesses, he should be a man of 
blameless character. He has need of strong moral fibre. Only 
those of high moral excellence are welcomed in the privacy of 
the home. 

The physician has such intimate knowledge of the frailty 
and weakness of man that he is in special need of a sane view 
of life. Unless he is able to view the vices of others with pa- 
tience and hope of reform there is a strong temptation for him 
to become cynical. Yet it is the general experience of physicians 
that as the years pass, they find they are growing more con- 
siderate and sympathetic. 

5. Temperance. The physician should not indulge in any 
practice that interferes with the clearness of his thought, or 
the steadiness of his hand. When performing an operation for 
cataract, if his hand trembles, he may cause the patient to lose 
his sight. He needs control of all his powers of mind that a 
correct diagnosis may be made. There are too many chances 
taken when treated by a glutton, a drug fiend, or a man weak- 
ened by some indulgence. 

II. ROUTINE AND ETHICAL PROBLEMS 

1. Visits. To wear a path to the house of sickness gives 
the impression of seeking a large fee. Yet it may be neces- 
sary to make frequent visits in order to get a clear idea of the 
condition of the patient. Unnecessary calls may frighten the 
sick; hence, as few visits as possible should be made, and these 
at regular intervals. 

2. Consultation. The first duty of a physician is to ex- 
amine the patient and determine the disease. Then he should 



The Physician ^1 

possess such knowledge that he may give medical treatment to 
limit the action of the disease and repair the damage done. 
Because many diseases have not yet been mastered, physicians 
often find they are not able to treat successfully certain cases. 
It is not always easy to tell when a person has appendicitis 
and when his condition is dangerous. As medicine is not an 
exact science in the sense of mathematics, physics, or chemistry, 
there is frequently room for a difference of opinion as to the 
best course to follow. When the condition is such, it is cus- 
tomary for the regular practitioner to seek the advice of a col- 
league. The physician who is called should be sincere and 
candid in the consultation and should be careful not to insinu- 
ate to friends that the former treatment was not what it should 
have been. The conference should be in secret, and when a 
conclusion is reached as to what is to be done, no dissent by 
word or manner should be shown outside. In case no agree- 
ment can be reached, another physician should be called and 
the advice of the majority strictly followed. 

3. Interference. Suppose a child is burned, and the fam- 
ily, in their excitement, call three or four physicians. The 
first to arrive will dress the wound. If this should be done 
by other than the family physician, he should ask that their 
regular practitioner be called, and withdraw, unless requested 
to continue the case. Should the doctor be called to treat an 
emergency case while driving a country road, he should treat 
the case, and turn it over to the attending physician on his 
arrival. 

4. The Split Fee, It is common practice for the surgeon 
of a hospital to split his fee with the local physician sending 
him a patient on whom an operation is necessary. For busi- 
ness turned to him, the surgeon is willing to divide his pay 
with the one aiding him. This form of medical graft has not 
ceased, although there is a vigorous protest being made against 



52 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

It by many prominent members of the medical profession. 

5. Quacks, No self-respecting physician will advertise the 
cures he has effected or is able to perform. Professional honor 
permits him to put only a small business card in the local 
papers. Whenever you see an advertisement of quick cures 
for rheumatism, cancer, consumption, kidney trouble, etc. . . . 
remember the man is a ^ 'quack" and able to do an unlimited 
amount of harm. If sick, go to a physician of acknowledged 
standing, not a ''faker" to be bled for your money and left 
worse than when you came. 

6. Charity, What should a doctor do when called to treat 
a poor person who cannot pay? It is the common practice to 
attend those in need. This seems to have led to an overcharg- 
ing of the well-to-do and rich in order to be reimbursed for 
losses through treating the poor. To balance accounts in this 
way does not look like charity. There is an old saying about 
robbing Peter to pay Paul. When a fair fee is asked of all 
and the poor are also treated, you have real charity. When a 
profession prides itself on its gifts, it should see that it does 
not give with one hand what it takes with the other. Yet the 
money received could hardly be put to better use than the ser- 
vice of the indigent. The physicians receiving large fees are 
few in number. Almost all country doctors carry a large charity 
practice and receive only ordinary fees. Physicians do the most 
extensive charity work of any large group in society. 

7. Public Hygiene. When an epidemic of cholera, or 
fever, or some other contagious disease, is sweeping through a 
community, the physician should be ready to co-operate with 
the authorities in the enforcement of sanitary regulations. As 
a guardian of public welfare, he should teach the people to ob- 
serve the elementary principles of health, thus preventing dis- 
ease. But physicians cannot educate an unwilling public. 
Recognition from the public of the paramount importance of 



The Physician 53 

sanitary and hygienic laws, is necessary for the successful prac- 
tice of preventive medicine. The public must feel the need of 
proper treatment to prevent diseases; of the necessity of vacci- 
nation for smallpox, typhoid fever, and spinal meningitis, when 
an epidemic is in the community. 

The public can never repay the services of men like Pasteur 
and Koch, who gave us the germ theory of disease; Morton, 
who gave us ether; Jenner who gave us diphtheria antitoxin; 
Lister who gave us the principle of antiseptics. We can only 
start a list of these servants of society, many of whom are un- 
known. These and other physicians, have become great through 
conspicuous service. 

The auto is taking the place of the horse, but the night calls 
in all sorts of weather are about as numerous as ever. Often, 
worn out with work, the doctor keeps at his tasks at the sac- 
rifice of his health, for he realizes that work cannot wait. 
When the roll of public servants is written, the physician's 
name will be near the top. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — Write out the answers given by local physicians to 
the following questions. Use some method by which all the 
questions will be answered and have the answers reported when 
the questions are discussed. 

1. Give an illustration when firmness is required by the 
physician. 

2. Has the physician the right to repeat to others that 
which has been told in a professional way? 

3. Are there conditions peculiar to this profession which 
make sympathy necessary? 

4. Has the patient the right to know if his condition is 
serious ? 

5. How often should the sick be visited? 



54 ^n Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

6. If drugs have shattered a surgeon's nerves, and he makes 
a mistake which proves fatal, is he guilty? 

7. Is he to blame, if, worn out with lack of sleep, caused 
by professional duties, he makes a mistake? 

8. When should another doctor be called? 

9. What is due the family physician if another is called in 
an emergency? 

10. Is it right for a surgeon to split his fee with the local 
physician ? 

11. Is it right to charge the rich a fee greater than that 
required under ordinary circumstances? 

12. Should a doctor teach the people preventive medicine? 

13. Are there demands made upon a physician to sacrifice? 

14. Is the doctor under obligations to attend medical as- 
sociations ? 

15. Has the physician the right to tell of the defects he ob- 
serves in others? 

16. Is it right for a doctor to patent or keep secret a medi- 
cal discovery? 

17. Have friends a right to know when the condition of 
the patient is serious? 

18. What sort of a character should a man possess who is 
told the most delicate of family secrets? 

19. When has a physician a good opportunity tp offer ex- 
cellent advice? 

20. What is to be done if two doctors advise one thing, 
and two another, in a consultation? 

21. Should a person expect medical aid if he cannot pay? 

22. What is legitimate advertising for a doctor? 

23. In case doctors are changed, is it right for the last 
doctor to criticise the treatment of the former doctor? 

24. Is it right for a doctor to leave a community in time 
of pestilence? 



CHAPTER V 



THE LAWYER 



Development of the Lawyer Class. Originally there were 
no lawyers, as there were no bankers, bakers, druggists or 
specialists of any kind. Each man when he had a controversy 
with his neighbor settled it by physical force. Then attempts 
were made to adjust differences by argument. In time it be- 
came evident that some men were stronger intellectually than 
others in the settlement of controversies. From this class, 
specialists in settling disputes developed. Thus, from a crude 
beginning, the legal profession arose. As in the past, men have 
selected attorneys because of skill in settling controversies, so 
today a man generally employs a lawyer, not to tell him whether 
he is right or wrong in his contention, but to learn how he can 
win, whether his claim is just or not. 

Classes of Lawyers, Hence the counsel faces this problem: 
Shall he as a lawyer, seek solely to win his cases or shall he try 
to get justice done? Lawyers divide roughly into two classes, 
as they answer this question. The first group generally holds 
that it does not judge of the client's conduct. Its problem is 
to indicate to those who employed them, how in the intricate rela- 
tions of human life they may walk without getting entangled in 
the meshes of the law. The second group believes that clients 
should be told not only wfiat is the legal remedy in controver- 
sies, but what under the circumstances thty ought to do as dis- 
tinct from what they can do. In the first class is a brilliant 
array of talent, often representing corporate interests and crim- 
inal causes, which is unmindful of the distress and misery it 
causes society. In the second class is a list of illustrious men 

55 



56 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

who hold human above property rights ; all the people before a 
part of the people; life before law, rather than law before life; 
in a word, men to whom the social consciousness of their day 
is the supreme law. They realize that men still worship at the 
shrine of precedent which may have defined the life of some 
past period, but which for us may be only a stereotyped form. 
These men stand ready to aid in the enacting of laws adapted 
to present conditions, to simplify legal procedure, to decrease the 
cost of litigation, to remove the evils of tardy justice, toi counsel 
the ignorant and defend the oppressed. 

Of course the line of demarcation between these two classes 
of lawyers is not sharply drawn in each case. In the case of the 
individual attorney there may be any mixture of allegiance to 
precedent and those currents of thought which make for pro- 
gress and either for right or wrong. Naturally lawyers are 
conservative and most of their training is in that direction. Per- 
haps they are the most conservative of any large class of society. 
They must find justification for their acts from a legal point 
of view in the past. By continually turning to the past and to 
precedents found in books they lose touch with the new move- 
ments arising in other days and contributing to public welfare. 
The newspapers and periodicals do much to keep the legal pro- 
fession in sympathy with new tendencies in society. 

It may be for the advantage of society to have a class which 
stands for the conservation of past value and which is not given 
to quick changes. It is altogether possible for an attorney to be 
conservative and still seek to get justice done according to the 
written law even though he may not be in sympathy with many 
modern movements. He may be faithful in interpreting the 
law, not simply according to the letter but in its spirit; and 
he may thus promote justice in society. Then he belongs to the 
class of conservative lawyers whose service to society is based 
upon the laws clearly established in the past. In this group is 



The Lawyer 57 

found the greater number of conscientious practitioners. The 
lawyer who is a reformer along many lines may be of great 
benefit to society but he is viewed by the members of his profes- 
sion as not being strictly in harmony with them. 

The Attorney and the Client. In employing an attorney, if 
possible, have a definite understanding as to his fee. If this is 
not possible because there is no way of approximating the 
amount of work to be done, the matter of compensation should 
be left with the attorney. The attorney is trusted with busi- 
ness and he alone is competent to judge of the fee. Where the 
work of the attorney is routine like the drawing up of legal 
papers there is a tendency to charge a regular fee. This may 
lead to a standard of fees for certain kinds of work which will 
be the same for all attorneys. 

In case an attorney is employed he should state to the 
client any relation he may have to the parties connected with 
the controversy or any personal interest which he might have in 
the case which would justly influence the client in his choice of 
an attorney. A man would probably not want to employ an 
attorney who was a relative of the person with whom he was in 
a controversy. Before an attorney advises a client he should 
attempt to obtain thorough knowledge of the case. He ought 
to know as many facts as possible bearing on the controversy 
that he may be able to give mature advice. The client should 
be told the probable result of a law suit and what are the merits 
of his case. If there is an opportunity for a peaceable settle- 
ment the lawyer ought to seek to adjust the controversy without 
litigation. This he may not be able to do because so many who 
employ attorneys desire to win their cases rather than to 
obtain justice. 

^''Once employed," Justice Sharwood says, ^'entire devotion 



^Jurisprudence, Law and Ethics — Kinkead, 338. 



58 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

to the interest of the client, warm zeal in the maintenance and 
defense of his rights, and the exertion of his utmost learn- 
ing and ability, are the higher points which can only satisfy the 
truly conscientious practitioner/* 

E. B. Kinkead says: ^"In the preparation of the law an at- 
torney is expected to exercise ordinary skill, care and diligence. 
There is no business in the world that so requires the exercise of 
intellectual honesty as the practice of law/' "And this applies 
particularly to the examination and determination of the law of 
a case. Anxiety to make a case for a client, or to protect his 
interest must not warp the opinion upon legal propositions. The 
client should be fairly and candidly advised of all doubtful or 
weak points in his case, and in many cases should be made to 
assume the responsibility of action after being fully advised in 
the premises. An attorney, it is said, is the keeper of the con- 
science of his client. It might be a hard task in many instances 
to impose this duty on counsel. But what is meant by the state- 
ment is that the lawyer must carefully guard and protect his 
client by keeping him in the path of rectitude, where lack of 
knowledge might sometimes lead him into difficulty." To do 
his full duty to his client and yet to refrain from any wrong 
practice is the difficult task of the lawyer. When the right has 
been determined, it takes courage to tell the client what he can 
do and be just, and it requires tact to make him understand this 
without offending him. If the lawyer sees from the facts 
stated that his client has no standing in court, then he should 
be man enough to tell his client the truth. Many lawyers will 
advise a lawsuit when they know that the client's chances are 
meager to win and that his chances to lose are great. 

The Lawyer and the Judge, There is a common opinion 
that antagonism exists between the judge and the attorneys in 



^Alabama and Virginia Code of Ethics. 



The Lawyer 59 

a case and that if an attorney can cite a case which has been 
overruled or offer evidence which he knows the court must 
reject, in order to make an impression on the jury, or refer to 
some law which has been repealed in the hope that the judge 
may not be aware of the change and treat it as though it were 
in force, or misstate the contents of a paper and not be caught, 
or misrepresent the argument of the opposing attorney and 
thereby produce a false impression, that the court should be 
able to defend itself and that the attorney is not responsible 
for frauds which he may be able to perpetrate on the judge and 
the jury. 

There may be ground for this opinion in the conduct of 
attorneys, for many in order that they may win are willing to 
deceive the court and to hoodwink a jury. When the judge is 
weak there is a strong temptation to take advantage of him. 
There is always a temptation to appeal to the sympathy, passion 
and prejudice of a jury. If the ideal is to win the case irrespec- 
tive of its merits, and by any means at hand, the attorney may 
justify himself in his trickery and deceit, and a great many will 
stoop to practices that by the standards of their own profession 
are condemned. The attorney is one of the officers of the court. 
He with the other attorneys and the judge are there to ascertain 
the truth and see that justice is done. 

In this intimate relation with other officers of the court, if 
he is a man of high principles, he will feel that he ought to 
deceive the court in no way, that he should aid it in arriving at 
the truth and that he should deal fairly and candidly with the 
judge. It takes a man of strong moral character to be faithful 
to ideals of honor and fairness, that he may be a worthy ex- 
ample before the court. The judge is entitled to the loyal sup- 
port of an attorney when he is faithful in discharge of his duties, 
even though there may be popular clamor against him. Judee 
H. E. Herrick, in addressing the Albany Law School, said : ''Be 



6o An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

absolutely candid with the court, do not attempt to mislead it. 
Remember you are one of the officers of the court whose duty it 
IS to assist it in ascertaining the truth; it has a right to rely 
on you. A lawyer who is not candid with the court, who 
attempts to deceive or mislead it, soon becomes a marked man. 
In all your acts and dealings, so conduct yourselves that you 
will not be ashamed to have any of them exposed to the full 
blaze of public scrutiny and criticism.*' 

The Relation of the Attorney to Other Attorneys, ^Kin- 
kead gives the following rules to be observed by a lawyer as 
related to his associates: *'He must keep faithfully and liber- 
ally every promise or engagement he may make with them. He 
should never mislead his opponent. He should never give or 
provoke insult. He should never engage in ^sharp practices.' 
Always be liberal in extending favors and courtesies to your 
fellow member when it does not prejudice your client. In an 
argument of causes, either orally or in brief, counsel ought to 
speak respectfully of each other.'' A constant effort is required 
of the lawyer to understand and become acquainted with the 
position of the opposing party, and tact and skill are necessary 
if he is to show the opposition the justice and reason of his own 
point of view. 

In order that a favorable impression may be made upon a jury, 
the attorney ofttimes makes the feeling of the client his own and 
uses bitter language to the opposing attorney, speaking in a 
slighting way of him, and attempting to convey an impression 
that he is unjust and inefficient. If the business of the attorney 
is to win the case without regard to the method used, he, may jus- 
tify himself in his practice. Ought not a court of justice be a 
place where there is a premium on gentlemanly conduct? Law- 
yers by their treatment of judges and of one another, have done 



•Jurisprudence, Law and Ethics—Kinkead, pp. 345-346. 



The Lawyer 6 1 

much to discredit themselves before the people. 

Unjust Causes, When an attorney takes a case which he 
knows he cannot win, simply to gain a fee, he has degraded 
his office. He has shown himself willing to receive payment, 
for a service which cannot be to the advantage of the client. 
He has retarded the trial of worthy cases by using the time of 
the court and he has caused the state an unnecessary expense. 
Of course the attorney may be asked by the party who feels 
aggrieved to bring the disagreement into court, and it might 
be that if he did not take the case, another lawyer would be 
asked to do so. But the question is not whether he should lose 
a fee or a client, but whether he should promote hopeless liti- 
gation to please the vanity or hate of some disgruntled person, 
or some one who believes he is right but evidently is in the 
wrong. 

The attorney who attempts to conduct an action, feels that 
he should carry it to its termination, and in almost all cases 
does so, even though he discovers that the client has misrepre- 
sented the case to him. It is a point of honor with him, that 
he should not abandon a case which he has accepted. ^^'Any 
conduct on the part of the client during the progress of the 
litigation, which would lead to humiliate the attorney, such as 
attempting to sustain his case by the subornation of witnesses, 
or by any other unjustifiable means, would furnish sufficient 
cause to justify the attorney in abandoning the case.'' 

The American Bar Association holds: ^'Every lawyer upon 
his own responsibility must decide what business he will accept 
as counsel, what causes he will bring into court for plaintiffs, 
what cases he will contest in court for defendants. The responsi- 
bility for advising questionable transactions, for bringing ques- 
tionable suits, for urging questionable defenses, is the law- 



*Weeks on Attorneys. 



62 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

yer's responsibility. He cannot escape it by urging as an excuse 
that he is only following the client's instructions." 

Confidence. The client should set before his attorney all 
the facts in the case. It often happens that the client withholds 
some of the facts. Frequently they are brought out in the trial, 
to the consternation of the client and his attorney. The lawyer 
ought to be worthy of confidence. The law prevents him from 
using information given in confidence, except the client give his 
consent. The adverse party cannot employ him to make use of 
the information he has gained. Moreover, his professional 
honor will prevent him from disclosing a confidence. A man 
who has the interests of his client at heart will settle out of 
court by compromise, if possible. 

When an attorney advises a peaceable settlement and some 
concessions on the part of his client, it probably would be good 
judgment for him to heed the attorney's suggestions. The cli- 
ent can make it possible for his lawyer to follow Abraham 
Lincoln's advice to his colleagues, — ^^Never stir up litigation. 
As a peacemaker the lawyer has a supreme opportunity of being 
a good man." If the differences are such that settlement cannot 
be reached, justice may be sought in the court. One should be 
careful not to seek a selfish advantage by means of the courts. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — The teacher should assign students to secure an- 
swers from lawyers in the community to the questions in the 
book. Have the students write at the time of the interview the 
answers given. Have the answers read in class. Then the 
lawyer's viewpoint is secured which is what is desired. 

I. Would you expect your attorney to seek the judge out of 
court and talk over your case with him? 






The Lawyer 63 

2. Would you seek the judge out of court to talk about 
ur case? 

3. Do you expect your lawyer to make your feelings his 



4. Has a lawyer a right to abandon a cause because a fee is 
not paid? 

5. Has the attorney the right to abandon a cause? 

6. Has the client a right to change lawyers? 

7. Should a lawyer abandon a case after he has entered 
court ? 

8. Is an attorney under obligation to bring out the points in 
favor of the other side? 

9. Should you tell your attorney all the facts in the case? 

10. Should a man of little less than ordinary moral charac- 
ter be admitted to the bar? 

11. May an attorney represent conflicting interests? 

12. Would a standardized fee for routine work be advis- 
able? 

13. What virtues are emphasized in this profession? 

14. What virtues are absolutely necessary in the legal pro- 
fession ? 

15. Suggest some new problems in our social life and indi- 
cate what bearing they have on changing legal standards. 

16. Why is it true that in the field of equity there is justice 
when otherwise the law would be insufficient? 

17. Why is the field of equity the place where the law is 
being transformed? 



CHAPTER VI 



THE CLERGYMAN 



Unity of the Race. The clergyman should have the convic- 
tion that the race is one. Not several human races, but one, 
is the creed of the true human heart and the Book. To over- 
come the prejudice of nationality, of educational differences, 
and of social discrepancies is the vital problem, and it is world- 
wide. Each local problem is an expression of this general con- 
dition. We have the white and the yellow, the rich and the 
poor, the ignorant and the scholarly, the filthy and the clean. 
How can we promote reciprocal understanding, appreciation, 
and assistance in all these diverse forms of humanity? The 
gospel of a common humanity related to God is a mighty sin- 
gle aid. The Gospel is needed in every field of service and in 
every relationship and engagement of human life. 

Religion Defined. The clergyman has an awakened moral 
consciousness and a conviction of responsibility. Because he 
regards moral conviction as laws which God would have him 
obey, he is religious. Kant held religion to be morality view- 
ed as a divine command. As far as ethics is concerned religion 
is such an appreciation of the Supreme Being and what he re- 
quires of men as will lead them to deal justly and kindly with 
one another. These convictions grow out of a personal 
relationship between himself and God, and also out of 
life's experiences, since he has found these truths of great worth 
in guiding him in his relations with men. It often happens that 
in the presence of such a man we feel that another personality 
has been substituted for his own; and we seem to know the 
change has been wrought in him by the power of a personal 

64 



The Clergyman 65 

relationship. If there is not this personal experience, there is 
a primary moral obligation on the minister to gain this fellow- 
ship for himself. 

Aim and Method of the Clergyman, He faces the problems 
of bringing others to a like experience. In this work there are 
certain outstanding problems. His aim is to get men to give 
God his place in every day life; to inspire them to lives of 
devotion and sei-vice; to get them to accept the gospel as a 
working basis of conduct. That he may accomplish this work, 
he must have a thorough knowledge of the Bible and of the 
actual social condition of the people with whom he deals. And 
he must believe that the Bible standard of living is not too 
lofty, either for himself or for other people. He cannot ignore 
the depressing poverty of the poor, the limited means of the 
middle-class, or the freedom of the rich. He must know actual 
social conditions and the great currents of public thought that 
he may meet, with the fitting message, the actual needs of his 
time. 

The minister must be keenly sensitive to the best in the 
spirit of his day and be untiring in his efforts to see that which 
may be only felt is accepted as common belief. The news- 
paper, the school, the railroad, the telephone, and the corpora- 
tion are bringing the nation together after a period of intense 
individualism, and the social principles of the past are now to 
be applied in a larger way. The minister is a man who ap- 
plies a message given him by revelation to the changing con- 
ditions about him and to the personal life. He is to bring the 
Divine within the range of man's spiritual vision ; to keep a 
stream of inspiration flowing into human life; and so to teach 
men of their relation to the Divine that they may be able 
rightly to relate themselves to one another. In this service 
there are definite problems he must face. 

Problems: Self -Satisfaction of People, Men, Amusements, 



66 An Inductive Study of. Standards of Right 

Sabbathj Social Problems, Salary. Wherever he works, he finds 
an apathy which is often appalling on the part of those whom 
he seeks to serve. They are satisfied with their condition; 
their children have scarcely any defects; their business may be 
prospering ; their town needs little improvement, and they want 
no different family life than that which they already enjoy. 
With sufficient money to meet lifers needs, they are content 
with their condition and refuse to be disturbed in their com- 
placency. Such people are a weight to those who are alive to 
the value of ideals and to the fulness of a life lived for the 
best, and who are not satisfied with mediocrity. The minister 
stands before the people, constantly aware of the fact that 
lukewarmness in virtue is less than the best. There are things 
that ought to be done, and others that ought not to be done. 
The strain of trying to be what others care little for, and see- 
ing his ideals disregarded, is his cross. This burden is lifted 
whenever he finds one who prefers the highest to the common- 
place ; yet there is more than enough reward in virtue to make 
his lot the only one worth while for himself. 

The men of the community are those upon whom should 
rest the responsibilities of the church. The churches are large- 
ly made up of women. The minister faces the problem of in- 
teresting men in the work of the church. He wants them at 
its service. He needs them to direct its business afifairs. He 
can advance no social reform without their co-operation, and 
his salary depends on their support.' And yet, strive as he will, 
it still remains true that only a limited portion of his congre- 
gation are men, and only a corporal's guard of any sex will 
meet him at the prayer-meeting for conference and prayer. 

The clergyman is frequently asked what he thinks of card- 
playing, dancing, the use of tobacco, and attendance at the 
theater or the movies. These amusements are often viewed as 
questionable pleasures, and as his views are sought he must de- 



The Clergyman 67 

cide what stand he will take personally when asked to indulge 
in or approve these amusements. It does not follow because 
they have just been named together that they all are approved 
or all disapproved. All sorts of distinctions are made and 
some are accepted and others rejected as legitimate or all ac- 
cepted or rejected. While many clergymen see no harm in 
some of these pleasures, others view them as hindrances to the 
highest type of life. In spite of the great diversity of views 
that are held, the clergy are careful to respect the conscientious 
scruples of other people. And they as a body are a fine ex- 
ample of men determining their conduct by a sensitive regard 
for the feelings of others. While it may be true that positive 
recreations should be substituted for negative demands and that 
the minister should aid by his approval in promoting such 
pleasures, the matter of enjoyment is only a small problem 
compared with the more serious social ones he faces. 

The bulk of the work of a minister must be done in pro- 
moting a wholesome personal and social life. To incarnate 
his message in his personal life so that he may not be a mere 
voice saying ''Do as I say and not as I do," and to see this 
righteousness appreciated by others, is his task. He must have 
opinions as to what constitutes morality. He should aid in 
creating a public sense of what constitutes right conduct and 
should interpret social problems in the light of the teaching of 
his religion. And in order that he may promote the social life 
of the community he should be informed about social problems. 
He should have knowledge of the forms which evil assumes, 
such as the saloon, gambling, political corruption, and business 
dishonesty, and he should be aware of those advances in charity, 
education, politics and business which are for the welfare of 
the people. Yet in all this social sei-vice, he should not forget 
that the power to effect these desired changes is the strength 
of his personal religious life. He must return to the center of 



68 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

life and reinforce it there that he may be able to eiffect the re- 
forms he desires through creating like life and ideals in others. 

He should war against all that threatens domestic purity, 
temperance and happiness; in a word, all the interests of the 
people are his. He must be in life what he exhorts others to 
become in practice, a pattern of good works. 

Because of the separation of the church and the state, the 
money paid a minister is often looked on as a gift. The effi- 
cient minister, the most conspicuous of public servants, finds 
himself in an embarrassing situation. He is paid by men who 
may use the same tactics in the church that they practice in 
business. The ethics of his calling prevents a vigorous protest on 
his part, and the result is society gives him barely a living wage, 
and often not that. Not only is his stipend many times irregu- 
larly paid, but it is sometimes raised in ways which would try 
any self-respecting individual. To receive a salary from ice 
cream socials, oyster suppers, and entertainments, does not 
appeal greatly to the proclaimers of strict business integrity. 
Yet for the sake of the work, he is willing to live in want and 
ofttimes in poverty. 

Virtues'. Purity^ Honesty j Truthfulness, Independence, Earn- 
estness, Sacrifice, Charity : The clergyman must not only be 
pure in outward conduct, but also in thought and motive. The 
one whose call is to ' 'holiness" cannot speak with power unless 
he has a clean life. To keep himself pure in heart is for him 
a constant struggle when there is so much of impurity about, 
which society views with complacency. In all his dealings, he 
should be scrupulously honest. The least departure by way of 
failing to pay a debt, or the sanctioning of crooked dealing by 
others, is at once noted and held against him and his cause. In 
speech he should be truthful, stating the facts as he sees them 
when necessary, not given to exaggeration, or undue modesty, 
but speaking the truth according to his insight and personality 



The Clergyman 69 

and in love. 

In the struggle to advance social and personal righteousness, 
there will be many who will be aroused to repressed or open 
and violent hate. To have its faults pointed out is more than 
ordinary human nature can bear without resentment. This 
hatred will express itself in many ways, and the minister will 
soon know that it exists; yet he must not hate his enemies. 
There will be many demands upon him to let down the standards 
of right in which he believes. Frequently, force will be brought 
to bear, friends will desert him, men will withdraw their sup- 
port and he will be obliged to move. He should not fear. He 
must be an independent man ; not one who leans on others. He 
is the champion of ideals. Men expect him to stand, in praise 
and censure, true to the principles to which he is committed. 
This he cannot do unless he is somewhat sufficient in himself. 

His efficiency depends largely upon his earnestness with 
which he can ill afford to dispense. It saves him from the bane 
of professionalism for it warms all that he does with enthus- 
iasm, and clothes it with dignity. Not only does he bear the 
burdens common to other men, but also the added one of ever 
seeking more fully to realize the ideal. He cannot help attempt- 
ing to change conditions that are not right. Society applauds 
but few who seek to change its customs, and it often sacrifices 
those who would lift it to a higher level. The great religious 
leader of all time knew whereof he spoke when he said: ''If 
a man would come after me, let him take up his cross daily and 
follow me." 

The moral obligations of the clergyman are summarized in 
the Ten Commandments, the Golden Rule, the Sermon on the 
Mount and The Great Commandment. It is required of him 
that he live as one who has the moral perspective of eternity and 
that he win to and encourage others in a like life. 



70 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

QUESTIONS 

Note : — Secure from the ministers in the community answers 
to the following questions and read their replies in class. Write 
down their answers as they give them. Remember you are seek- 
ing the minister's view point of his problems and virtues. 

1. Does the minister do right in refraining from smoking 
and the light use of liquor? 

2. Does he do right in refusing to attend dances and the 
theatre? 

3. Why do so many ministers say they should avoid the 
appearance of evil? 

4. Why does the minister seek to keep in touch with the 
young ? 

5. What special claim have the old upon him? 

6. If the world's work is done in middle life, does that 
mean he should give special attention to the problems of that 
period ? 

7. Is it advisable to denounce persons from the pulpit? 

8. Does an obligation rest on the minister to be a person 
who is easy to meet? 

9. How do people outside the church view an organization 
which does not pay its minister on time, and which thereby 
forces him into debt? Is this fair judgment? 

10. Is it all right for the minister to pay the debts quite a 
while after they are due? 

11. How should a minister treat a person or family who 
constantly seeks to undermine his influence, but who is affable 
to his face? 

12. Why is there danger that a minister's judgment may 
not be good in business? 

13. What should be his attitude toward those who hate 
him? 



The Clergyman 71 

14. What should be his attitude toward the indifferent? 

15. What should be his attitude toward the saloon? 

16. What should be his position on graft in business and 
politics ? 

17. Wh)^ has the school the right to claim his attention? 

18. What should a minister do in case the majority of the 
members of his church favor saloons? 

19. Has a minister a right to proselyte? 

20. Should he expect the same standard of virtue to govern 
his congregation as that which he applies to himself? 

21. Should he loaf in places of business? 

22. Should a minister take an active part in politics? 

23. Should he sanction membership in the church choir, 
irrespective of religion? 

24. Under what circumstances should he sever connection 
with a church as its minister? 

25. What are the special virtues of his calling? 

26. What are his outstanding problems? 



CHAPTER VII 



THE EDITOR 



The Public Must be Pleased, To many, an editor is a man 
who sits in his office, writes a few articles offhand, and sends 
out his paper. Between the man and his finished work there 
is a gap which the mind does not readily fill, for the public 
knows little of the stupendous task of gathering the news, pre- 
senting it in readable form, and making the paper pay. 

Before the editor is a teeming multitude with interests as 
varied as the lives which people lead and all furnish material 
for the editor. The house maid, sweeping off the front porch 
in the early morning, may glance at the headlines and the bar- 
gains before bringing the paper to the master of the house. He, 
in turn, reads the items of news that are of interest to him 
while across the table his wife may be scanning the bargain 
sales or the society columns. The paper records those events 
in which a part or all of the people are interested. Generally 
the items of news are such that only groups are interested in 
them. Unless there is an occurrence of importance the reader 
is usually concerned with only such a part of the paper as may 
appeal to him. The problem is not so much in relating news 
which will be of interest to all people as in presenting to smaller 
groups the material in which they are interested. To many 
the editor gives their daily mental bread. He has gathered 
the news from all classes and conditions of society and he sends 
it out, like the modern breakfast food, already cooked and in 
easily digestible form. For business reasons he gives the pub- 
lic what it wishes to read, and presents the news in a way 
easily understood by all. There is only fifteen minutes used 

72 



The Editor 73 

on the average for reading the paper; so there must be brevity 
and clearness in presenting the news, and the gist of the mat- 
ter must be found in the headlines. A paper that panders to 
those w^ho vv^ant information quickly makes generous use of 
illustrations for any one can read a picture. Here is the street 
w^here the jew^elry store is located; here the cross where the 
thief broke in; here the dotted line showing the way the thief 
ran, and here is the storekeeper in hot pursuit. Why read the 
account of the burglary? 

The Difficulty of Getting Accurate News, The temptation 
to be inaccurate is tremendous, due to two facts; the careless- 
ness with which the public hurriedly reads the paper and in 
most cases the impossibility of getting news first hand. Why 
distinguish between shooting and stabbing? What difference 
does it make whether the one who drank carbolic acid was six- 
teen or twenty-six? The public gets the same quivers in either 
case. To tell the truth, since the public knows what hap- 
pened it does not care greatly whether or not it is truly por- 
trayed. On the other hand, suppose the reporter for a paper 
has an earnest desire to tell nothing but the truth. He hears 
that a safe has been dynamited. He hurries to the scene and 
finds a crowd looking at the shattered safe. He learns that 
the explosion was heard at one o'clock in the morning; and 
that no explosion was heard ; that two men must have done it ; 
that it took only one ; that they escaped through the window ; 
that they picked the lock of the door. Now what shall he re- 
port to his paper? This is but an example of such practical 
problems as the reporter is daily called upon to meet. 

It is only fair to say that the average editor has 
almost a passion for an accurate statement of the facts. 
The paper strives to impart the same spirit to its reporters and 
while the reporter may not give an exact statement of the facts 
in a piece of news he generally has made an honest effort to 



74 A^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

do so. Many times those interviewed by a reporter cover up 
a portion of the facts because they are not to their credit. 
And there is the natural difficulty which comes in giving a 
true statement about an event even when the facts are known. 

The effect of reading untrustworthy news is very delet- 
erious. There is the saying, ^^It is only newspaper talk.*' 
Many matters are treated lightly for it is expected the reports 
will be denied the next day. The reaction on the part of the 
editor is to make his paper more sensational, with the result 
that its statements are given, in time, less and less credence. 
When the public becomes convinced that the reports in a paper 
are not true then its circulation is affected and this causes the 
editor to struggle more earnestly than before to keep his news 
accurate. 

What Constitutes News: What constitutes news is an old 
question. At first thought it might be said "Anything that hap- 
pens, '^ but all are not equally interested in the same phase of 
life. An artist might insist on having at least half of the front 
page given to a description of the recently held art exhibit. The 
base ball enthusiast must have all the sporting news ; the minis- 
ter all the religious news; the business man must know every 
detail of Wall Street. Manifestly, all items cannot be given 
the same amount of space. It is the editor's duty to assign to 
each interest its place and prominence in the paper. In the 
city the interests are largely those of groups and only conspicuous 
individuals are mentioned in the papers. News is that informa- 
tion a number of people desire and which does not violate the 
canon of decency. 

The country newspaper is more concerned with the interests 
of individuals than is the city paper. In a small town every 
one knows of the friendly rivalry between the judge and his 
neighbor as to which can show the first mess of string beans 
or the finest sweet corn, and the announcement in the paper as 



The Editor 75 

to the success of one or the other creates quite a stir. The city 
man who jokes and laughs over the item that ''Jim Black is 
building a fine barn on his farm" misses the significance of the 
whole life of the country editor. He does not see that the new 
barn indicates a neighbor's prosperity and that his fellow towns- 
men are glad because of his success. In a practical way the 
country editor is living in close touch with the details of a 
neighborhood's life. He is a recorder of the heart throbs of 
each of his fellow men, while the city editor deals mostly with 
the movements of groups, and interests which effect the com- 
munity as a whole. 

Papers Suggest Scandal and Crime: Many newspapers are 
unconsciously conducting schools of crime by their publication 
of attempted suicides, holdups, and confidence games. The 
paper may tell of a most clever method of getting money under 
false pretenses. How suggestive this is to a mind constantly 
on the alert for such things. The general impression many get 
from the daily perusal of the deeds of the transgressors of law 
is that every body is a criminal in disguise, but they have only 
to look about them and see the hundreds of honest, industrious, 
virtuous men and women there are in society to realize how 
utterly false is this idea of life as mirrored in the press. In 
fact the public gets only one side of the moral phase of life, the 
other being ignored or not shown in its true proportion. 

News is something out of the ordinary which is of interest 
and society is concerned when any person sets aside the stand- 
ards which it holds. It is natural that society should want to 
know when people are seeking to harm it or to further its inter- 
ests. Thus both extremes of moral action are depicted in the 
paper and much which is evil appears in print. The privilege 
of pointing out the faults that are in society belongs to the paper 
because of the right of free speech. The question might be 
raised as to whether the further suppression of news would not 



76 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

do more harm than good. Publicity arouses public opinion 
which may lead to reforms. 

News Not Specially Noted: To the weekly and monthly 
magazines has been left largely the publication of news other 
than that which is political and local, such as discovery and 
invention, historical research, art, and the social movements of 
the day. The revival of the Chautauqua platform is in some 
measure due to the fact that these departments of knowledge 
have been neglected by the papers. Many cities issue municipal 
leaflets and have municipal exhibits to furnish the people with 
the information they should receive. City Clubs are organized 
where the speakers are given opportunity to explain phases of 
their individual work. These are outlets for news for the pub- 
lic which it would not be apt to hear if it depended upon the 
daily paper. 

The Policy of the Paper: Every Editor must adopt some 
definite policy for his paper. This policy is generally flexible 
so that new events may fall under it without straining it. Day 
by day the chosen policy is set forth in some form or another 
until the paper comes to have its own personality and draws 
from the community its sympathizers and followers. In time 
the paper may come to stamp its personality on the community. 
The reiteration of any idea good or bad is bound to impress 
Itself on the minds of the people. The very fact of its forceful, 
persistent presentation is an argument in itself. The news- 
paper thus becomes the greatest factor known in the moulding 
of public opinion and raises the editor to a position of power 
which is measured only by his own ability. 

This is especially shown in the writing of his editorials. Al- 
though it has been estimated that not more than fifteen per cent, 
of the people read editorials yet these few are the leaders. To 
write an editorial requires a broader insight than the recounting 
of an event. The act commented upon must be seen in its sig- 



The Editor 77 

nificance, relative to the future. More and more this is per- 
ceived to be the work of educated men — those who call to their 
aid history, sociology, philosophy, and economics. There are 
few professions that demand so high an ideal ; few that call for 
so much courage of conviction, breadth of vision and capability 
for leadership. 

History of the Newspaper: The newspaper has had its 
growth much the same as other institutions. In the days of 
Horace Greeley the paper was a one man affair. People spoke 
of ''what Greeley said.'' Every one knew who the editor was 
and that he was responsible for every thing said in the paper. 
Those were the days of bitter recriminations — when editors vied 
in abusing each other. Slowly there came a change as a result 
of which the editor found that one man did not have sufficient 
financial backing to compete with the others. Partnerships 
proved most unsatisfactory and soon this plan was given up. 
Eventually, corporations were organized which insured the 
funds necessary to support the paper. The necessity for this is 
easily seen when we realize the enormous expense incidental to 
publishing a city daily. This includes equipment, salaries of the 
small army of employees, and the expense of obtaining the news. 
Those who control the majority of the stock in a modern news- 
paper naturally claim the right to determine its policy. But 
when papers passed into the control of corporations the influ- 
ence of a single man on a paper ceased to be as marked as when 
an individual alone controlled it and the paper became the pro- 
duct of a great machine. 

Advertising: A newspaper depends upon the money which it 
receives from advertisers for its profits. The cost of a paper of 
sixteen or more pages is generally as great as the price at which 
it is sold to the news boys. The paper must depend upon its 
advertisers for its support. And the ground on which a paper 
secures advertisements is the number of its subscribers and the 



78 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

character of the people it serves. The greater the number of 
people who read the paper, the stronger the appeal that can be 
made to advertise in its columns. Since advertisements are read 
almost altogether by the women, the editor must cater to them 
through beauty columns, fashion notes and society news. If the 
paper is such as pleases the public there will be a large circula- 
tion and a high price can be charged for advertising. Competi- 
tion forces the editor to maintain and improve the quality of his 
paper. If it becomes clear that his paper does not furnish as 
good social news, sporting news, literary news, or general news 
as that given by his competitors, his circulation drops and he 
loses advertising. The number of advertisers depends on the 
number of subscribers, and that upon the general excellence of 
the paper. 

Advance Movements, An Audit Bureau of Circulations is 
doing much to promote fair dealing between the newspaper and 
the advertiser. It used to be impossible for the advertiser to 
determine the circulation of a newspaper. The dishonest editor 
could misrepresent the circulation and there was no way to 
discover the truth. Thus advertising was turned from the 
worthy paper to one with a sm.aller circulation. This Bureau 
gives a certificate after examination of the actual circulation 
of a newspaper. Any advertiser v/ho will ask for the state- 
ment of this bureau can tell the circulation of a paper which 
has been examined by the Bureau. 

The newspaper of the future is bound to be much cleaner 
and fairer minded than the one of today, for the profession has 
set for itself certain ideals toward which it is continually striv- 
ing. The schools of journalism established so recently are 
raising the work of an editor from an occupation to a profes- 
sion. These schools are attracting men of culture, of taste, of 
correct moral standards, to this work, and journalists are begin- 
ning to see the power such special training will bring them. The 



The Editor 79 

best editors are just a step ahead of the people. It is theirs 
not to whip or scold, but to reform; not to run ahead, but to 
lead; and always to be in the thick of the fight. The editor 
who is of the greatest worth to society is the practical idealist. 

QUESTIONS 

Secure answers from newspaper men when possible and read 
them in class. 

1. Is it right for newspapers to advertise saloons and liquor 
houses ? 

2. May a reporter on a city paper have to work all night 
regularly ? 

3. May a newspaper tear down a man's reputation and 
still not be answerable to the law? 

4. Is the fact that the people want a certain type of news 
always sufficient reason for printing it? 

5. Has an editor great opportunity to promote measures 
for the benefit of the community? 

6. Does the possession of so great power on the part of an 
editor carry with it a great responsibility? 

7. Is it fair to a reporter to state but a part of the fact to 
him in the hope he may not discover and publish some things 
desirable ? 

8. Why are the editorials in a newspaper so important? 

9. Is it right for a newspaper to represent one political 
party ? 

10. Is it right for newspapers to insert advertisements for 
medical quacks? 

11. Is a paper justified in suppressing a part of the news 
for fear it will antagonize a corporation or private party? 

12. Are there many times when the wife of a reporter has 
to trust him implicitly? 



8o An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

13. Who IS responsible for the policy which a paper is to 
follow ? 

14. Why is a large circulation desirable? 

15. Is the editor partly responsible for the crimes commit- 
ted by the weak and by children who take suggestions from 
the stories of crimes published in his paper? 

16. If a reporter cannot ascertain the facts is it right for 
the paper to print what the reporter considers to be the facts? 

17. What is meant by an '^editor who as a practical idealist 
is of great worth to society*'? 

18. Are editors justified in the bitter personal attacks some- 
times found in their papers in times of political excitement? 

19. What are the advantages to society when an editor is 
an educated man? 

20. What do you believe will be the general effect of 
schools of journalism on the morals of newspapers? 

21. Are there peculiar reasons why editors should speak the 
truth ? 

22. Is it right for an editor to let a personal dislike so 
control him in his conduct, as to refuse to advertise for a 
theater because he is unfriendly toward the manager? 



PART III 
BUSINESS 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE BANKER 



A Bank is a Business, The banker is a man who makes 
money by loaning money to those who have security to offer 
and are willing to pay interest for the use of the funds they 
have borrowed. A bank is not a charity organization, but a 
means of revenue to individuals having money to lend. In 
addition to the banker who has stock in the bank, men have 
bought the stock of the bank as a business investment, and, 
with those who have deposited money, demiand that the busi- 
ness of the bank shall be conducted in a manner profitable to 
them. 

Safe Loans, Credits, Character, Age of Borrower, Amount 
Advanced, There are certain problems common to every 
banker. Perhaps his outstanding problem is to invest the funds 
in his care so that he shall be safe from losses, and at the same 
time secure a reasonable rate of interest. He should be a con- 
stant and habitual student of commercial enterprise that he may 
be informed of the various undertakings carried on by the cus- 
tomers who trade at his bank. A successful commercial banker 
must have a knowledge of all kinds of commercial business, 
and of what manufacturing business is done in his community. 
The problems of every business in the community are the 
banker's. That the banker may safely invest money, an ac- 
curate and intimate knowledge of the character and financial 
standing of each person in the community is required of him. 
He should know the security which any man can offer when 
he wants to borrow. Upon its loans depends a bank's success 
or failure. A good loan is a safe one, not in excess of the 

83 



84 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

lowest value the security may come to possess, and is one which 
brings other business to the bank. The banker should know 
what property is worth that he may be sure to realize the 
amount of his loan if the property must be sold to meet the 
obligation. Further, that he may fairly judge of the amount 
to advance on security, he must know how to discern character. 
A loan to an honest man is safer than one made to a dishonest 
person, or to one of questionable integrity. 

He must also take into consideration the age of the person 
who borrows. A young man is better able to meet his obli- 
gations than an old man, particularly if the older man is en- 
tering a new business; as when a farmer comes to town and 
goes into business late in life. The banker cannot arbitrarily 
say how much money he will advance on security ofiered, for 
there are men competing against him in loaning money. 

Retain and Secure Customers, He must retain the cus- 
tomers he already has made, and because of deaths, removals 
and other losses of business, he must secure new ones. A per- 
sonal interest in the welfare of the people in his community 
aids him greatly in extending his business. 

Increase Deposits. He should continually seek to increase 
the deposits and the surplus of his bank. Larger deposits mean 
more interest and dividends for the stockholders, and a greater 
surplus means a more staple business, with greater security to 
stockholders and depositors. 

Ready Money, In addition to these considerations, he 
should carry a portion of his securities in forms that are readily 
convertible into cash, for customers have a right to their money 
if they desire it. Interest is a little higher on such short time 
loans, and the constant turning of his money enables him to 
serve the greatest number. 

When a banker is tempted to take advantage of the neces- 
sities of men, he should remember that in times of panic, he is 



^ 



The Banker 83 

allowed to suspend payment. He should show the same con- 
sideration to others that he receives when he is in need of help. 

Speculation. The depositor expects a safe investment of his 
funds, the highest rate of interest compatible with safety, an 
increase in loans and surplus, and readiness on the part of the 
bank to pay on demand. That the banker may meet these 
demands, he must be careful of his loans, accepting only ''gilt- 
edge" securities; he must not ask a rate of interest that shows 
he is taking risks; he must make friends to increase his busi- 
ness, and keep his funds readily convertible into cash that he 
may be able to pay or loan on demand. He is in danger at 
all these points. He is forced to make money for the stock- 
holders; hence is tempted to take questionable security and 
charge a high rate of interest. There are always plenty of 
people around to tempt him to the wrong. He cannot accept 
loans where there is a large margin of risk, even though the 
interest is high; neither can he accept loans with a narrow 
margin of risk, when the interest is little more than the nor- 
mal rate. He cannot lend money to his friends, simply be- 
cause they are his friends. Many take unfair advantage of his 
friendship and make it hard for him to refuse loans. In the 
country, where the banker is personally acquainted perhaps 
with the majority of his patrons, he needs to guard agamst his 
perfectly natural inclination to accommodate a personal friend 
with a loan without exacting sufficient security. If the board 
of directors of a bank sees to it that the officers of the bank 
conform strictly to the law, there is no good reason why a 
bank should close its doors. 

Local Business, The banker cannot take a man's word as 
to whether his property is encumbered or not, but must look 
it up for himself. There are many who will deceive him by 
trying to get money on encumbered or worthless security. 
The banker feels that those having first claim to consideration 



86 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

are the depositors and men engaged in business in the com- 
munity, for he should promote every legitimate home indus- 
try, since the local business men make his bank possible. Local 
investments are safe for he has a thorough knowledge of each 
man's credit. 

Reform Needed. The banker recognizes that our monetary 
system is not just v^hat it should be, and that he should co- 
operate w^ith Congress, clearing houses, and business organiza- 
tions in devising a more satisfactory system. It does not seem 
fair that money should be available in Wall Street for specu- 
lation at a low^ rate of interest, w^hen, at the same time, there 
is a scarcity of money to handle crops in the fall of the year 
and a large rate of interest is charged. The security the farmer 
can offer is just as safe as that of Wall Street promoters. No 
remedy offered by the money interests only should be accepted. 
All factors must be considered in the solution of this problem, 
— the interests of the borrow^er as w^ell as the lender. The 
Federal Reserve banks may make cash more readily accessible 
in time of need. 

Virtues, The banker should have the confidence of the peo- 
ple as w^ell as money to invest. There are certain virtues 
w^hich inspire this confidence and trust. 

1. Honesty. He should be a man who is absolutely honest 
with the officers of the bank and with customers. If there is 
the least suspicion that he is not honest, he cannot succeed. 
Such honesty demands of him wisdom, or a keen, fair, and 
practical judgment. 

2. Worthy of Confidence. The confidence and respect of 
people is only gained after long residence in one community, 
and he must persevere in the place where he begins business 
until this trust is won. It is generally true that the banker 
responds to this confidence with sympathy to the point of 
mutual business responsibility. 



The Banker 87 

3. Secrecy, He should keep secret the financial condition 
of all who put confidence in him. His customers are forced 
to disclose to him their exact business standing, and the banker 
realizes he must not give this information to others outside 
the bank to be used by them. If you wish to know the finan- 
cial standing of a man, do not expect your banker to tell you 
about him. The banker ought not to speculate in any way, 
for to do so might reflect on his honesty and destroy public 
confidence in him. 

4. Good Example, He has an excellent opportunity to de- 
velop business integrity in others, as they note with what care and 
fairness he handles his business. There are times when he can 
deter and prevent foolish and disastrous action. He can 
counsel against ''get-rich-quick" speculation or questionable in- 
vestments, and frequently save his customer from action that 
would be disastrous. He can prevent borrowers from going 
bcj^ond their depth, so that they can never get out of debt. As 
a public-spirited man he can advance almost every business in- 
terest of the community, and by his courage and courteous de- 
cisions, make for real business stability and prosperity. 

5. Courtesy. The interests of the bank may be promoted 
by courteous treatment of emploj^ees and patrons. People do 
not like to do business with a man who browbeats them, and 
they certainly will not deal with an unpleasant man if they 
can avoid it. It was said of President McKinley that he 
could refuse a request so as to seem to confer a favor. Many 
women have large business interests and must deal with the 
bank, and the utmost courtesy must be shown them. 

6. Temperance. The banker cannot afford to be intem- 
perate in indulgences, or in the expenditure of money. He 
owes it to his customers and stockholders not to use liquor, 
that his mind may be clear. He ought not to put himself 
where he w^ill be tempted to use funds not his own, because of 



88 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

lavish expenditures. He is a man who has beeen trusted with 
the money of other people, frequently secured by them at great 
sacrifice. Their money enables them to meet large portions of 
life's obligations, and as the guardian of their funds he should 
be found faithful. 

QUESTIONS 

Note — The teacher should appoint pupils to interview the 
bankers of the town and write down the answers they give to 
the questions at the time of the interviews. Their answers 
should be read in class w^hen the questions are discussed. 

1. Would you expect a banker to loan you money without 
security ? 

2. Would you expect to secure money from the banker to 
the full value of your security? 

3. Why is there a higher rate of interest on chattel mort- 
gages? 

4. Would you expect a banker to loan you money on ques- 
tionable security? 

5. Would you expect a banker to loan you money because 
of some previous act of friendship on your part, if your secur- 
ity was slightly questionable? 

6. Has the banker a right to advise you that you are con- 
templating a disastrous loan? 

7. Is it all right to get advice of your banker before mak- 
ing a loan yourself? 

8. Would you invest funds with a banker who used his 
own money in speculation? 

9. Has a banker a right to accept questionable security be- 
cause he can get a high rate of interest? 

10. Ought a banker to take sides when a moral issue is at 
stake if it will hurt the interests of his bank? 



The Banker 89 

11. Are your funds safe with a heavy drinker? 

12. Are your funds safe with a man of extravagant habits? 

13. When it is hard to get money out of a banker would 
you judge his bank a safe place for your money? 

14. Indicate ways in which a banker is forced to sacrifice. 

15. Why does the bank seek short time loans? 

16. What determines the rate of interest bankers charge 
on safe loans? 

17. Why should a banker advance home industries? 

18. Are loans made by banks in small towns more secure 
than those made by city banks? 

19. Is honesty with a banker an abstract principle? 

20. Why does the banker emphasize the word ''policy" in 
''Honesty is the best policy"? 

21. Is it wrong to foreclose a mortgage? 

22. If the interest can be paid does it bear on the above 
question ? 



CHAPTER IX 

TRADE 

Early Ideal of Trade. In ancient times the merchant was 
viewed as an alien, when outside the family, clan, or group of 
blood kin. He was an outsider. Others might harm him or 
he might hurt them. When the Greek and Phoenician traders 
dealt with foreign peoples, they placed a pile of goods on the 
shore and returned to their ships. Then the natives would 
come out and place beside these goods another pile which 
they offered in trade. They, in turn, retired, and the Greeks, 
coming out, decided whether to accept the offer or not. If 
not, they withdrew and waited for goods to be added by the 
natives. So, as between hostile parties, business was trans- 
acted. ^The trader was viewed as a robber and a stigma was 
attached to him because of his work. The man who held up 
a caravan and jeopardized his life in a fair fight was considered 
honorable, for only cowards would surrender to a robber. The 
merchant might take advantage of people who trusted him ; 
hence the thief was vievv'cd as more respectable than the trader. 

Until the Middle Ages trade was considered as a means of 
livelihood ungoverned by m.oral obligations. At that time a 
great step in advance was taken, namely that, the selling price 
of an article should be determined by the cost of its produc- 
tion. For centuries this v/as accepted as an axiom. Supply 
and demand were not factors regulating the selling price of 
articles; only the cost of the article in labor and material was 
estimated. In theory wheat sold for no more in time of fam- 
ine than when there was plenty. Gradually this idea of a cost 



"^Hadley : Standards of Public Morality, p. 34. 

90 



Trade 91 

price based on production gave way to methods of competition. 
Men now thought of right in terms of the greatest price which 
could be secured by the dealer. 

The Problem in Modern Trade, The problem in modern 
trade resolves itself into this: Is it fair for each man to get 
all he can and give as little as possible in return? The work- 
ing morality of the business world is summed up in the senti- 
ment: Buy at the least possible price and sell at the greatest 
possible price. Business assumes that each man will look out 
for himself, and so does the law of the land. It is a battle 
in which men strive for mastery and in which the weak are 
overcome by the strong. If a man is feeble-minded, the state 
will protect him, but under ordinary conditions, the alert and 
strong receive the large profits. Competition is the rule of 
business practice in our day and in accordance with this law 
men struggle and survive or perish. 

Advantages of Competition, There are a great many ad- 
vantages that accompany free competition and I shall mention 
some of them. 

{a) Permits Cut in the Price, The conception held dur- 
ing the Middle Ages was that the just price of an article 
should be based on the cost of producing it. Competition 
does away with this conception and puts in its place as the just 
price whatever the merchant can secure. Under the old method 
there was no way for a merchant to protect himself from loss 
in case he did not correctly judge what the demand would be. 
This is something very difficult to do. Suppose a dealer has 
one thousand chairs for sale, and apparently there is no de- 
mand for them at the price of the cost of production. If the 
selling price is to be based on the cost of production the mer- 
chant will be left with the goods on his hands and with no 
way to dispose of them. But if, under competition, he sees 
that there will be no sales, he can lower the cost to the pur- 



92 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

chaser or even sell at a slight loss and thus create a market 
for his goods and the money can again be used in another in- 
vestment. As he transacted business in chairs at no profit, he 
may feel that in the next venture he should charge a slight ad- 
vance to make up for his former loss. If the people want the 
new goods and are willing to pay the slight advance in price, 
he can thus recompense himself for the former business reverse. 

{b) Regulates the Supply. When the cost of an article 
is fixed depending on the cost of production, there is no way 
of telling when there is a scarcity of an article until it is all 
gone. The last bushel would cost as much as when there was 
plenty. When society had no way of determining the amount 
of its wheat and corn supply, it was in danger of famine. A 
system of competition, when free, causes the price of an article 
to rise automatically as it becomes scarce. Certain results nat- 
urally follow. People use some other article in its place and 
many now become interested in raising or manufacturing the 
scarcer article because of the large profit it brings. When in 
free competition the price of wheat runs up, the world is warn- 
ed of a scarcity of that food supply and it can use other foods 
as substitutes, or, better still, many more will raise wheat the 
next year and the price will gradually drop back to its normal 
level. The advance in price may work a hardship on some, 
but the benefits to society are greater than the disadvantages. 

(c) Increased Wages. Open competition generally in- 
creases wages. It leads to invention which, in turn, means 
that a higher average of intelligence is required of the workers. 
Intelligent workers are not easy to secure, yet success in bus- 
iness depends on the intelligence of those who are employees. 
Great administrative ability lies in the insight necessary to pick 
men of worth. These skilled workers are eagerly sought by all 
who conduct successful business and they are paid far above the 
average wage. It might be said that the lot of unskilled labor 



Trade 93 

is no better under present conditions. But this is doubtful. It 
is fairer to say that such labor is better off than before. The 
wages of the unskilled will procure more and better articles 
than at any other time in our history. While their lot may not 
be all that is desirable when compared with the more fortunate, 
when compared with the condition of unskilled labor in the 
past, they fare much better under our modern system. 

{d) Demands Greater Intelligence, Machinery has had 
a wholesome eifect on the morals of working men. Many large 
industries will not hire workers who are intemperate and that 
for a purely business reason. They cannot afford to risk val- 
uable machinery in the keeping of men made inefficient through 
liquor or any other intemperate practice. There is too much 
risk to their machinery, and to other lives for the destruction of 
which they may be held responsible. 

Child Labor, It is hardly fair to place the evils of child 
labor and sweat shops at the door of competition. These are 
survivals from old labor conditions. In the past, women helped 
to carry a part of the financial burden of the home, and in that 
labor the children were included. When these old labor condi- 
tions are carried into modern business, we have the objectionable 
features to which reference has been made. They are not 
necessarily the products of modern competition, but they are 
evils to be corrected in modern trade. 

Immigration, An interesting question arises when we con- 
sider the results of American labor in competition with the army 
of immigrants who come to us every year. As a rule, these new 
citizens are unskilled workmen. Two results may follow: 
The American laborer may not improve his condition, and then 
the foreigner will pull him down to his economic level. Or the 
American workman may see the necessity of assuming leader- 
ship and, improving his condition, may be forced up and not out 



94 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

by these rivals.* This is what actually has occurred in New 
York City. The Irish for a long time were unskilled laborers. 
Then the Latin peoples began to come in, with the result that 
the Irish, rising to the demand made upon them, assumed the 
places of leadership, while their rivals, in turn, did the work of 
the unskilled laborers. When the foreigner who is uneducated 
comes to this country, he makes possible the advancement of 
ambitious Americans. But when Americans are lazy and un- 
willing to strive for leadership, they are often bitter against 
those who are displacing them. Such hatred and prejudice is 
that of the incompetent. When skilled laborers come to Amer- 
ica they may displace the native workers or lower their wages. 

Brokers. It is not an easy matter to distinguish between 
gambling in business and fair speculation. Big business often is 
required to buy material far ahead of its present requirements. 
Cotton mills that employ a large number of men and that have 
fair assurance of many orders in the future cannot carry on 
hand the raw material necessary to meet the demand of their 
business. And they must have some assurance that the price 
of crude cotton will not vary greatly from figures that they 
may have in mind in order that they may sell to consumers at a 
reasonable price, and also be sure of a fair profit. The same 
is true of any other large business, such as milling and building 
construction. It is often necessary that goods be purchased 
far in advance. 

A broker is one who has studied the fluctuations in the prices 
of various commodities until he can tell approximately what 
they will be worth in the future. He has a fund of experience 
which is of value to those whose business makes it necessary 
for them to purchase goods in advance. By paying a small 
commission, a manufacturer may secure the valuable services of 



*Hadley: Standards of Public Morality, p. 57. 



Trade 95 

such a man. As the broker is of real worth to those who 
employ him, he is entitled to a fair compensation for his work. 
This remuneration generally takes the form of a commission on 
the purchases he makes for others. He has but been paid for his 
good judgment. Unless a broker is financially responsible for 
the losses which may be incurred through his advice, the one 
who purchases goods through him may indulge in a mild form 
of gambling. 

When there is no penalty for mistakes made in advising oth- 
ers, a broker may not feel under obligation for their losses. If 
he should be partly responsible to the party employing him for 
the losses incurred he would be much more careful in advising 
the purchase of material. When, with the purchaser, the broker 
risks his own funds, the advice which he gives will be sane and 
conservative. While it is not now a common practice for 
brokers to be held liable for losses because of advice which they 
have given, perhaps the only way in which their business may be 
lifted from the level of undesirable speculation will be for them 
to be made liable. 

There are all shades of speculation, from get-rich-quick land 
and mining schemes to the bucket shops operated in connection 
with stock exchanges. That business is honest in which the 
funds of the parties who are investors is secure and which prom- 
ises a fair return on the capital invested. For a broker to 
handle funds without assuming any responsibility is to encourage 
the careless use of money and the spirit of gambling in investors. 

Conipetition Between Capital and Capital. When competi- 
tion is between capital and capital for the services of labor, it 
is greatly to the profit of the worker. Competition of capital 
m.eans an advance in the wages of labor, so long as it is free. 
When labor competes against capital, there are so many advan- 
tages on the side of the latter that competition is often disastrous 
to the former. Labor must have the necessities of life while 



96 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

capital can wait until labor is brought into subjection. When 
labor in the form of unions assumes the right to dictate the 
wages that are to be paid, labor has placed itself in competition 
with capital, and of the two forces the latter is the stronger. 
The more perfect organization of labor may force recognition of 
its rights but the war has been taken into the territory of labor 
by trade-unions and is no longer between capital and capital 
only, but also between capital and labor. 

Even when competition appears to be free and the consumer 
benefitted thereby, such may not be the case. The merchant in 
a small town without conferring probably will charge a high 
price for early fruits and vegetables and other foods that are out 
of season. The profit from such sales may be more than normal, 
and yet no combination may have been formed. 

Value of Character in Trade, A young man entering bus- 
iness has two assets: The capital which he possesses and his 
character, and the latter is even more important for success than 
the former. An honest man of ability can secure money with 
which to carry on a business. As his integrity is tested, his 
character becomes to him of as great financial value as the cash 
which he possessed. Men are willing to invest in young men of 
worthy character, for the probabilities are that the investment 
will be found profitable. A reputation for moral integrity is of 
unqualified business worth. Trickery is often used in business, 
but extensive business is not promoted by the use of a small peck 
measure, or weights that have been lightened by boring away 
part of the metal, or any other petty tricks that yield a tempor- 
ary profit. 

As the world now stands, trade is the most fascinating of 
all the games man plays. To be able to win, to know one has 
succeeded where others failed, to pit one's powers against soci- 
ety and to be able to hold one's own is to strive and to have the 
satisfaction of business success. Those who play the game are 



Trade 97 

supposed to keep the rules, and they are given in the laws of the 
land. The game requires the finest skill and the strong win 
because of their strength. 

New Ideals in Trade, A business develops a history and the 
achievements and ideals of the house stand as guides to the 
employees. One employee may be pitted against the other or 
one loss against another. A man's past record may be held 
before him to see if he cannot excel it. Good workmen may be 
placed where they can be imitated by the less skilled. Wages 
on a commission basis are a constant impetus to effort. Promo- 
tions stimulate to greater faithfulness. By careful study on the 
part of efficiency experts, the movements of each worker may be 
greatly reduced and his output increased. The movements of 
the masons have been decreased at least two-thirds for the plac- 
ing of each brick. The business man feels that he is creating 
something worth while, and to him it is often as much or more 
fun than hunting or fishing. 

Trade offers an opportunity for service of one's fellows. In 
it a man may view his life as a struggle to gain for himself and 
his own that material prosperity necessary for the realization 
of his interests or he may look upon trade as an opportunity of 
doing his part in the work of the world and as one of his 
chances to serve. It would seem that the motive of service 
should be as strong or stronger than the desire to be served. 

The great mass of business today permits of interpretation in 
terms of service. While there are many places where trickery 
and fraud prevail; as in the majority of American homes the 
members of the family live a happy and normal life so the mass 
of our business is wholesome and offers the opportunity for nor- 
mal living. There is a growing sentiment that while an indi- 
vidual is entitled to the necessities and some of the comforts of 
life that in a business way he should not Hve wholly to him- 
self. 



98 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

While competition is the principle of business, the man who 
works only needs a change of viewpoint to make it competition 
in service. The big business has developed because it could 
render a better service than the small business and when modi- 
fied in the direction of service it might be still carried on under 
the law of competition, but it would be the competition of 
service and not of self-aggrandizement. Then the struggle to 
gain that material prosperity necessary for the realization of 
one's interest and the business itself and its contacts with society 
might all be viewed as opportunities of service. 

Many of the movements of our day are protests against com- 
petition as it now exists as the final law of trade. Labor unions 
oppose a ten hour day, unsanitary factory conditions and child 
labor. They do not believe in the least wages for the greatest 
number of hours that men may be made to labor. And these 
beliefs are now the common property of people. A new indus- 
trialism must come to prevail, one in which the individual is 
recognized as having a worth not ascribed to him before. With 
the recognition of the value of each life, there will come a 
change in the scale of wages paid the individual. There has 
been an advance in ideals of the value of life, and the privileges 
each person should enjoy, and the industrial problem will be 
partly solved, and that correctly, when the methods of business 
are made to harmonize with these new ideals. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — ^Write out the answers given by local merchants to 
the following questions. Use some method by which all the 
questions will be answered and have the answers reported when 
the questions are discussed. 

I. What is the main problem in modern trade? 



Trade 99 

2. Is the evil of child labor wholly due to modern trade? 

3. Has competition decreased wages in general in the last 
fifty years? 

4. Is it necessary for business men to buy large amounts of 
raw material far ahead of the time they use it? 

5. Why ordinarily is competition betw^een capital and cap- 
ital? 

6. What has brought about a change? 

7. How does competition show the faults in the conception 
of a just price as held in the Middle Ages? 

8. What portion of American workmen may not be able to 
compete with foreigners? 

9. a. Why does the use of machinery promote intelligence ? 
b. Why does the use of machinery not promote intelli- 
gence ? 

10. Is the business of the broker a legitimate one? 

11. Should a broker risk a part of his own money in a busi- 
ness deal he advises? 

12. Is dealing in ^'get-rich-quick" schemes justifiable? 

13. Why has a good character value to a business man? 

14. Are people satisfied with competition as the final law of 
business? 

15. What is the place of service in business? 



CHAPTER X 



CORPORATIONS 



Growth of Corporations, A corporation is a form of busi- 
ness which has grown up in connection with demands made by 
society. It is one of the ways society has devised for promoting 
its own interests. The greatest single cause of corporations was 
the introduction of machinery to take the place of labor that 
formerly had to be performed by hand. Rapid advancement in 
scientific knowledge promoted attempts to apply the informa- 
tion gained to bettering our social conditions, and these ejffiorts 
multiplied incentives for further invention until, in our day, 
the demand for creative genius in applied science is more varied 
than we can appreciate. This progress altered the methods of 
work which men had followed for centuries. The blacksmith 
had beaten plowshares from time immemorial. The tailor had 
fashioned garments as far back as our written records run. The 
kitchen of the housewife had not changed greatly in many gen- 
erations. With the introduction of machinery which took the 
place of handpower, the old industrial order which had seemed 
permanent, began to break down. 

While it was a great reverse to many that their trades were 
being carried on by machinery rather than by hand, the change 
would not have been so serious if labor could still have con- 
trolled the means of production. With the introduction of 
machinery, the worker lost control of his tools for he no longer 
possessed the means necessary to secure them. That industry 
might be carried on profitably, it became necessary for those 
possessing limited means to combine their capital in order that 
they might purchase machinery which would enable them to be 

lOO 



Corporations 101 

more efficient producers. Thus through co-operation the cor- 
poration was started. It was inevitable that it should spring up 
as soon as expensive tools were designed. This costly machinery 
could not easily be moved and the laborers naturally settled 
wherever the factory happened to be located, and thus the popu- 
lation became congested near the factories. This combination 
of capital was not an arbitrary matter but just an advanced 
form of industry which society found necessary to promote its 
own interests. 

As these co-operative groups were new, they had but vaguely 
defined powers and privileges, and what would constitute a fair 
attitude toward the people and the state had not been deter- 
mined. The state and the public were equally vague as to 
what were the privileges and duties of a corporation. The 
first step in solving the problems created by the entrance of 
such organizations into the life of society was taken when they 
incorporated, and thereby received legal recognition and could 
sue and be sued. When incorporated, they became responsible, 
legally-constituted bodies and were under obligations. Of 
course their rights were not at first sharply defined, and their 
obligations were equally vague. These organizations were 
greatly benefitted by the advances made in transportation facili- 
ties, for they thereby gained a ready market for their goods. A 
new type of leader was necessary that such business might suc- 
ceed, and the demand created what are called ''captains of 
industry.'' Men of executive ability who could handle workmen 
and material forged to the front. 

Differences Between Corporations, Corporations are semi- 
public as is shown by the lists of the stockholders. The stocks 
are scattered among the people who indirectly control the bus- 
iness. The government does not control all corporations in the 
same degree. It partially controls the steel and sugar trusts, 
has more to do with banks and railroads, and completely regu- 



102 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

lates the postofEce and education. 

Corporations are not of the same moral integrity. There 
are some of whose benefit to society there is little or no doubt. 
In this class we place the universities and churches. Then there 
are some corporations about a part of whose practices questions 
might be raised, such as the steel, sugar, and oil trusts. Yet 
these latter corporations are necessary and of great worth to 
society. 

When we look at society as it is now constituted, we can see 
that corporations are one of the advance steps which it has 
taken. They are now necessary. Religion, education, insurance 
and all other forms of large business have assumed co-operative 
form. 

Corporations Created by Law and Individual Initiative. 
A sharp distinction should be made between a corporation, and 
a trust or a monoply. The trust is a product of natural growth. 
Corporations found that they were bidding against one another, 
cutting prices and destroying themselves. That this excessive 
competition might be stopped, the representatives of different 
corporations came together, united their capital and made the 
trust the trustee of their interests. When so combined, as was 
natural, they found they could use their powers to their own 
advantage, and the exercise of this power gave rise to a num- 
ber of abuses. 

In a discussion of this subject it should not be forgotten 
that these organizations are the product of legally granted priv- 
ileges. As fast as these combinations were made, it became 
necessary for the state to guard its interests and define the duties 
of these bodies. The problem of the combination of capital was 
not acute in the early stages and hence the state, not grasping 
the importance of this forward movement, did not consider 
carefully the rights it granted corporations and the restraints 
that should have been imposed. The states made the corpora- 



Corporations 103 

tions, and if they are not what they should be, the states are 
largely responsible for present conditions. Such organizations 
are now the products of past legislation and hence cannot be 
dealt with in any arbitrary way. 

It is well to remember, in a discussion of the subject, that the 
government has made certain promises which it should fulfill. 
Yet the states are not altogether responsible for corporations. 
Suppose a certain man finds an attractive site for a factory in 
your town; that he raises the money necessary from those will- 
ing to invest funds, and starts a plant. He has formed a cor- 
poration and the city is forced to handle it and grant some sort 
of a franchise. There is a real sense in which the promoter 
creates his business. Of course the state permits it and enforces 
legal responsibility. Society and individuals with initiative are 
responsible for present conditions. 

Benefits of Corporations, Society derives considerable bene- 
fit from corporations. They are able so to lower the price of 
production that with the wages of labor, a man may purchase 
better things than he can possibly make. We live in better 
houses, eat better food and wear better clothing than our grand- 
fathers thought possible. In the families of a hundred years 
ago, all worked hard. The wives spun the wool and made the 
cloth and the clothes. They dressed their own meat and made 
their own candles. They worked to possess the necessities of 
life and their products were of inferior quality. Today the 
housewife has leisure and children spend years in getting an 
education because machinery has lowered the cost of production. 

Corporations have been able to conserve energy by preventing 
overlapping in like productions, by collecting for large tasks 
men of the best brains and by utilizing the by-products. The 
labor of one man will support a family and give it all the 
necessities of life, some comforts and some leisure. Corpor- 
ations have been largely instrumental in bringing about this 



104 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

result. 

Evils of Corporations, Attention has been called to the reas- 
on for the formation of trusts that separate corporations were 
driven together to keep from destroying one another. When 
the trust was created, having so much power, abuses grew up 
with it. The vast capital of a trust made it easy to crush 
weaker competitors. Suppose a corporation had an indepen- 
dent oil plant. The trust could reduce the selling price of oil 
below its actual cost, and in a short time the independent bus- 
iness would be forced to shut down. Then it could raise the 
price a little, make up for its loss and have its troublesome com- 
petitor out of the field. The great trusts of our country have 
often mercilessly crushed their weaker competitors. 

Trusts may fix prices independent of the laws of supply and 
demand, and of fair competition. Ordinarily, the amount of 
goods and the needs which people have of them together with 
competition, give us a fair price. But the trust can limit its 
output, and as it has no competition, it can set prices indepen- 
dent of the laws of trade. As long as capital was organized in 
the form of small corporations and competition existed between 
them, society was benefited, for the selling price of goods was 
still determined by the laws of supply and demand and competi- 
tion. 

As soon as trusts were formed, the ordinary rules of trade 
were no longer operative, and new methods of control had to be 
devised. The only moral principles in business practice have 
been those of competition. Those who formed trusts did not 
fully realize that new and unfortunate conditions were brought 
about by their combination. Competition has been able to curb 
selfish desires, but when trusts were formed, they found them- 
selves freed from the wholesome restraints of competition. 

Protected by vast sums of money, trusts often placed them- 
selves above the law. When it was to their advantage to do so 



Corporations 1 05 

they frequently transgressed the law, knowing that they could 
protect themselves by their wealth. With money they entered 
legislatures and, by bribery, defeated measures not to their 
advantage and secured legislation they desired. Even courts 
were not always beyond their control. When they engaged in 
such practices, they were a menace to law and order and good 
government. They then desired license and not liberty. 

When expensive machinery is located at some fixed place, 
it becomes necessary that those who operate it reside near by. 
The population becomes congested. This prevents the work- 
men from having patches of ground to cultivate, denies the 
children a place to play and causes families to be herded together 
in tenements. The corporation may say: '^Work some other 
place.'' But this is just the thing their employees are not able 
to do. They often have not the money to make a change and a 
man cannot learn a new trade in a few months. 

Control of Corporations, Trusts often violently oppose any 
control of their business by the government. A speaker at an 
important dinner in New York said: ^'^The most remarkable 
thing about the relations of the government to business seems to 
me to be that it is necessary to discuss them at all.'' In other 
words he wanted big business to be left alone. If he had 
recalled the way in which these organizations had grown up 
under control of the government, he would have seen the fal- 
lacy of his remark. No connection between business and the 
government. Then why not burn down the buildings of the 
trust, since they would be left without protection ? A big busi- 
ness is dependent upon the government at every turn. The 
government is the party responsible for the control of all such 
great industries, and the welfare of the people is the supreme 
law of the government. It is a right as old as civilization that 



^The Captains of Industry. Thompson. Review of Reviews. 
Dec. 1912, p. 721. 



Io6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

the government shall exercise its power on behalf of its subjects. 
Anarchy follows liberty without law. Prosperity follows lib- 
erty restrained and directed by law. 

There are two ways in which the government may deal with 
corporations. It can destroy them or control them. The 
former is impossible, and the latter is necessary. There are 
certain measures which the government might take to bring 
about better conditions. It could control the watering of stocks. 
By this is meant that, beyond the actual money invested in 
equipment, the corporation sells stock whose only value is on 
paper, hoping that the original investment will earn enough to 
pay interest on this fictitious stock, as well as the original cap- 
ital. When the earnings are large it is often done. The trouble 
with such business is that its value is frequently only on paper. 

Advancement, If all corporations were required to hand 
periodical reports to the government, it would prevent some 
questionable practices on their part. Such reports would make 
public their affairs, and then they would be subject to the ap- 
proval or disapproval of the public. Public opinion would be 
rational because it would be founded on facts. The more light 
thrown on the workings of big business, the better for the peo- 
ple, and, in the long run, for such business. 

The interests of the people are so intimately bound up with 
the actions of great industries that they have a right to the 
facts. The necessities of life, such as oil and sugar, are in the 
control of the trusts and their work cannot be carried on in 
such a way that the people and the government shall have no 
idea of their affairs. The questions which confront us will 
best be settled by an enlightened people who have been taught 
through newspapers, periodicals, and reports what are the facts 
in the case. Some advocate making the directors of a corpora- 
tion criminally liable for the willful breaking of laws by a 
trust. This may mean a jail sentence or fine, or both, in case 



Corporations 107 

the law IS disregarded. 

The corporation must rise to a higher standard of morality 
than that required when one deals directly with another un- 
justly, for he may be seen the next day and told his fault. If 
rancid butter or spoiled eggs have been sold, they may be re- 
turned to the grocer. When we have to face a man again, we 
will be careful in dealing with him. But what do the man- 
agers of corporations know about the details of the business? 
Meat is shipped to China and if it is spoiled and the natives are 
harmed from eating it, the manager does not know them per- 
sonally. They may not be heard of again. What if the manage- 
ment does sell adulterated food or defective machinery that 
leads to accidents? Those in control are so far away from 
those injured that they do not see the results. 

When we deal with a corporation we transact business with 
something almost impersonal. For a corporation to deal justly 
it is necessary to have at its head men of large sympathies and 
strong moral character. They must be able to put themselves 
in the place of others when the conditions are extraordinary, 
and must deal as equitably with the absent customer as though 
he were present. 

The attitude of a number of trusts has changed in late years. 
Their officers feel that they are responsible, — not only to the 
stockholders, but also to the public. Not until they meet their 
obligations to the people, by whose favor they were created will 
the trusts have proven their right to exist, free from govern- 
mental control. Hospitals, night schools, accident insurance 
and old age pensions show a philanthropic tendency on the part 
of the corporations. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — ^Write out the answers given by heads of corpora- 
tions to the following questions. Use some method by which 



io8 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

all the questions will be answered and have the answers re- 
ported when the questions are discussed. 

1. What do you think is the greatest single remedy for 
controlling the abuses of trusts? 

2. Could the state be expected to fully define the rights 
and duties of corporations before they were full grown? 

3. Can you see any necessity for ^'captains of industry'^? 

4. Have the people a right to a voice in what they shall 
pay for the necessities of life? 

5. Should a corporation be independent of state control? 

6. What gives the state a right to control corporations? 

7. What is the difference between a corporation and a 
trust r 

8. Why did railroads formerly issue so many passes? 

9. Was society justified in allowing machinery to displace 
work done by hand when it knew so many men would be 
thrown out of employment? 

10. Are corporations wholly responsible for the vile condi- 
tions in which their laborers often live? Are they responsible 
if their plants are unsanitary? 

11. Are corporations justified in evading the law? 

12. Is law necessary to liberty? 

13. What is the diflference between liberty and license? 

14. Are corporations necessary in modern life? 

15. Why is a finer moral sense required to manage a big 
business than to conduct a private one? Is big business neces- 
sarily bad business? 

16. Was it right for men to combine their capital and 
through co-operation purchase expensive machinery? 

17. Have you any more right to cut your initials on a rail- 
road station than on your neighbor's front door? 

18. May we speak of a corporation as good or bad? May 



Corporations 109 

we speak of a government in this way? Why? 

19. Is a trust justified in bribing a legislature or a court? 

20. Was it necessary for corporations to unite into trusts? 

21. Why do men put their feet on a plush seat in a railway 
coach when they would not think of doing it in a private par- 
lor? 

22. Is it fair for a trust to crush small competitors? 

23. Are women better off because of the introduction of 
machinery ? 

24. Has the public the right to know how corporations are 
conducted ? 

25. Is there any relation between the use of machinery and 
the large number of children in our public schools? 



CHAPTER XI 



LABOR UNIONS 



The Growth of Labor Unions, About the year 1 830 labor- 
ers united in demanding free schools supported by the state, the 
abolishment of imprisonment for debt, the mechanics' lien law, 
and the abolition of compulsory military services. In arguing 
against the demands the property owners said: ^^One of the 
chief incitements to industry among the (working) classes is 
the hope of earning the means of educating their children re- 
spectably or liberally/' It was thought the free schools might 
take away the incentive to work. In our own day such warn- 
ing seems absurd, but then it received careful hearing. Gradu- 
ally laborers have acquired rights which formerly the well-to- 
do and more successful niggardly withheld from them. Today 
every trade of any consequence has its union, and these local 
unions are banded into general unions known as the American 
Federation of Labor and the Industrial Workers of the World ; 
one seeks to better conditions without a social overturning; the 
other attempts to promote an upheaval of society. 

The Causes of Labor Unions, We have witnessed two great 
revolutions, one political and the other religious. We are now 
in an industrial revolution. Despotism in the state and the 
Church have ceased. ^*'The industrial world is the last strong- 
hold of the despotic principle.'' The guild system of the past 
was an industrial feudalism with its master workmen, journey- 
men and apprentices. As gunpowder doomed political in- 
equality, so the use of machinery has sounded the knell of in- 



^History and Problems of Organized Labor — Carlton, p, 464. 

IIO 



Labor Unions 111 

dustrial feudalism.^ Carlton says, *'A dim and indistinct ideal 
of a form of industrial democracy is beginning to be outlined 
in public opinion.'* The greatest single cause of labor unions 
was the formation of large corporations. The trust was a 
gigantic institution whose sole purpose was to make money for 
its stockholders. It exploited society in every way possible and 
labor found itself helpless when employed by such corporations. 
In the past the employer knew his workmen, they were few in 
number and were bound to him by personal ties. 

As business grew and trusts were formed, the managers of 
big business hardly ever saw the workers. Their agents repre- 
sented them and the benefit of personal contact was lacking. 
The relation between employer and employee became purely 
financial, and the labor organized itself to obtain a part of the 
profits of industry. The advantages to society of corporations 
were great. Better articles were produced at a much lower 
price so that the scale of living rose for all people. While it 
might be shown that the lot of the working man has been made 
better by such organization of business, that is not exactly the 
point in question. Has the standing of the laborer advanced 
in proportion to the benefits derived by society from invention, 
and in harmony with democratic ideals of equality? This is 
an open question when we consider the condition of the average 
worker and when there are men who are very rich and who 
hold their wealth for the purpose of self gratification. Labor 
meets the organization of capital with the organization of labor 
in order to obtain a larger share of the profits of business by 
aggressive associated action. 

Immigration has aided in the development of labor unions. 
American workmen have felt that they must organize to pro- 
tect themselves against the invasion of their trades by foreigners. 



^History and Problems of Organized Labor — Carlton, pp. 464-465. 



112 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

As business increased in size, many small merchants were 
forced into the class of employees and became efficient workers 
in corporations. These men were above the average in general 
intelligence and business ability and became leaders among the 
workers. To better their condition, they, with their fellows, 
banded together in demanding a larger share of the profits of 
business. In reckoning the forces which have given rise to labor 
organizations, while apparently their main cause is to increase 
wages and thereby better their condition, we must remember 
that as significant a cause are the ideals prevalent in our day, 
those of equal religious, political, industrial and social rights. 
Such ideals are the causes of mighty changes, such as the 
Magna Charta, the Reformation, the abolition of slavery, and 
universal suffrage. 

The Advantages of Labor Unions. Labor Unions have been 
able to gain great advantages for their members, the most im- 
portant of which has been an increase in wages. For this rea- 
son it has not been necessary for the wife and children to unite 
with the father in making the living. The mother has been 
enabled to give her time to the home, and the children have had 
an opportunity to obtain an education. They have had ample 
time to grow and not to be burdened with the cares of mature 
life. The home has had more of the necessities and comforts 
of life because of this advance in wages. But this increase in 
wages has not been made willingly. Labor fought for it and 
won, and the credit for the benefits which followed is due in 
large measure to the labor organizations. 

The unions have stood for shorter hours. Work became in- 
tensive as machinery was introduced and the old privileges of 
going for a bucket of water and chatting for a while with the 
employer passed away. The machine, working automatically, 
demanded close and constant attention. Labor unions persisted 
in their demands for an eight hour law and finally succeeded in 



Labor Unions 1 13 

obtaining it. This gave more time for rest and amusement 
after the strain of intensive w^ork. 

Many unions have hospitals where the members, afflicted with 
dangerous diseases, may be treated. The International Typo- 
graphical Union has at Colorado Springs a hospital worth over 
one hundred thousand dollars for tuberculosis patients. It, 
with other unions, insures its members, so that they secure a 
pension in old age. It stands for equal wages for men and 
women and also pays a burial fee. Many unions conduct 
courses in education for their members that they may become 
more efficient workmen. Employment offices are also main- 
tained. 

Where laborers have been forced to work in unsanitary con- 
ditions, they have opposed their employers through the unions 
and forced them to provide healthy places in which to labor. 
Through the efforts of the unions, gloom has given way to sun- 
light, foul air to fresh air, and filth to cleanliness. They have 
always stood opposed to the sweatshops and, by using a union 
label on their goods, they have been able to guarantee to the 
purchasers that their goods were made under favorable condi- 
tions of labor. They have protested where labor has been 
made to work with dangerous machinery and have secured the 
use of safety devices. 

Trade Unions are free parliaments of debate where the mem- 
bers are trained in grasping the significance of great movements 
as they bear on the welfare of labor and where the different 
members have an opportunity to take part in the discussion. 
Many who otherwise would be indifferent to public affairs take 
an active interest because of their membership in some union. 

The unions have agitated against child labor. This survival 
of a past generation is a blot on our industrial life. Against 
it the labor unions are set and at the present time there are 
laws which to a great extent prevent it. 



114 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

In some unions the members pay a regular fee for insurance 
which is furnished at a low rate. We may sum up the advan- 
tages of labor organizations by saying that they stand for an 
increase of wages, shorter hours, improved conditions of health, 
comfort and safety, education and free discussion, insurance and 
pensions, recreation, abolition of child labor, and the payment 
of a living wage. 

Weapons Used by Labor Unions, (a) Strike, Labor has 
used certain weapons to force the recognition of her demands. 
The oldest is the strike. It has been a principle of business 
that a man cannot be forced to work for another, that labor 
must be voluntary. If labor is dissatisfied, it has the right to 
quit work. So far, there is little dispute. The strike is the 
great weapon which labor holds by which it defends itself. 
But when a strike occurs, there are non-union men who stand 
ready to take the places of the union workers. After the union 
worker has sought to persuade the non-union worker not to 
take his place, is there anything else he can legitimately do? 
Has he the right to destroy property and to do bodily injury 
to non-union men? If a strike cannot be won except by arson 
and murder, the harm to society may be greater than the bene- 
fit derived. 

Besides there are legitimate methods of getting justice done. 
Labor can go to the courts and there receive fair treatment. 
But if, as is often held by labor leaders, the courts are in league 
with capital, then labor has the most powerful weapon of all, 
the ballot. Let her go into politics and formulate laws and 
elect judges who will be fair. There are many signs that the 
unions will enter politics. Labor lobbies have not been sucess- 
ful in the past. Most social changes in our country are brought 
about through politics, and if labor is to gain its rights, it must 
utilize this means. 

Unions in Europe have gained much by entering politics and 



Labor Unions 115 

they serve as an example of what may be done in our country. 
Having gained shorter hours and an increase of wages, the 
benefits now sought by the unions will come by influencing leg- 
islation. Labor unions have been guilty of crimes in the past. 
The Anthracite Strike Commission, appointed by President 
Roosevelt, reported: 

^'The strike was characterized by riot and bloodshed, and 
culminated in three murders, unprovoked, save by the fact that 
two of the victims were asserting their right to work, and an- 
other as an officer of the law was performing his duty in at- 
tempting to preserve the peace. Men who dared to be impartial 
or who remained at work were assailed and threatened and 
their families terrorized or intimidated. In several instances 
the houses of such working men were dynamited or assaulted 
and the lives of unoffending women and children were put in 
jeopardy. The practices we are condemning would be outside 
the pale of civilized warfare.'^ 

Where violence used to be spontaneous and hence easily con- 
trolled, now it is often premeditated and careful plans are fol- 
lowed. It is known that gangs of thugs have been hired to 
harm and intimidate non-union sympathizers. While it is true 
that labor has often used force to serve its rights it is just as 
true that capital has not hesitated to do the same. In order 
that strikes might be broken it has hired gun men and toughs 
that union men might be intimidated. Both capital and 
labor have sought to promote their interests by force and while 
it may be true that labor unions have not always obeyed the 
law and respected property rights it is just as true that capital 
has not always obeyed the law and respected human rights. 
We can find little or no justification for either labor or capital 
transgressing the law. For them to kill or destroy is to place 
themselves in the class of criminals. The great. mass of labor 
union men are peace loving and law abiding. 



Il6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

The question arises as to how far union men have the right 
to control labor when they constitute but a small minority of 
the total number of workmen. Union men would have this 
minority control all labor. A prominent labor leader has said: 
^''If an individual of a class seeks the control of his own labor 
to the extent of becoming a strike breaker, his action is in- 
tended by his employer to result, and sometimes does result, in 
defeating the union. . . . This he has no moral right to 
do, nor under the principal of group justice has he the right to 
take the place of the union man who is striving to maintain 
the objects of labor union, the welfare of the group." While 
it may not be right for a union man to work during a strike, 
it is quite another matter to assume it is wrong for a non-union 
man to do so. The union may be sovereign over the workers 
within it, but outside the union itself, it cannot presume to dic- 
tate. Unions do not represent all of labor, but only a fraction 
of it, and for them to control it all would be tyranny. 

In the past, most of the strikes were for higher wages, bui 
today a large percentage of the strikes is to gain recognition 
for union officials. Even though the employers are willing to 
pay the increase of wages demanded, the officers of labor unions 
will advise the continuation of a strike unless the terms are 
made with them as the leaders of labor. This gives tremendous 
power to such representatives. They can declare strikes and 
refuse to end them until employers treat with them. They 
themselves are even stronger than captains of industry. Thef 
want the union recognized. If these men are of good char- 
acter, is there any good reason why labor should not be or- 
ganized as well as capital? 

{b) The Closed Shop, When labor had gained the right to 
combine it went on to demand the * 'closed shop" as a means of 



World^s Work, Vol. 23, p. 109. 



Labor Unions I17 

securing what it desired. Such a shop is one where only union 
men are employed. The ''closed shop" is bitterly opposed by 
employers for they say it amounts to the control of their busi- 
ness. For employers to be forced to hire only union men is to 
do away with competition as a means of selecting their em- 
ployees. It means that the union, which determines how much 
work constitutes a day's labor, can determine what is to be the 
cost of production. For the union to dictate to the employer 
just what men are to be employed and what wages are to be 
paid is to array itself against non-union labor in a class war. 
The unions persistently forget that they are a minority of the 
workers and as only a fraction of the persons interested, they 
aggressively demand the right to control the whole situation. 
Not all unions are in favor of the ''closed shop." In the rail- 
way shops union and non-union men work side by side and the 
former seek to win the non-union workers to their beliefs by 
friendly means. Were the unions more extensive, they might 
be more successful in advocating the "closed shop." 

{c) The Boycott, One of the weapons which labor uses ef- 
fectively against capital is rfie boycott. If the union is not rec- 
ognized by an employer, it says, "we will not patronize you in 
your business and we \^all seek to turn business from you." 
To destroy the credit of a business man and take away his 
trade is not difficult and employers stand in fear of the boycott 
for it is a powerful means which labor uses to bring them to 
its terms. 

Agreements. Both unions and corporations agree on the fol- 
lowing points: Associated action for themselves and competi- 
tion for others, governmental recognition but not efficient regu- 
lation, and the use of the government for their own purposes. 
Corporations seem more favored by the government while unions 
have the greater numerical standing. 

Politicians, Today politicians and police officials fear to 
antagonize labor unions and often countenance in them actions 



Ii8 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

not for the best interest of the government; and of course the 
same thing can be said about their attitude toward corpora- 
tions, for both are powerful. They are called practical poli- 
ticians because they know how to find favor with these war- 
ring factions. The present armed neutrality between unions and 
corporations will give way only when both make concessions 
not in the interests of a class, but in the interests of all the 
people. 

Advancements, A practical reform that would lessen the 
friction existing between the employer and the union would 
be to grade the men into groups, say, A, B, and C, on the 
basis of their length of service and skill and rapidity of execu- 
tion. Then any one desiring to pay high, medium or low 
wages, could select such men. This would protect the em- 
ployer and give an incentive to better work in the union. Trade 
agreements between employers and employees in which both 
parties agree on certain propositions as to wages, hours and 
sanitary conditions are in extensive operation and bid fair to 
prevent strikes, and they offer opportunity for the settlement 
of difference. In trade agreements corporations of capital and 
labor may agree upon hours of work, scale of wages and other 
matters of difference together with how their future disagree- 
ments are to be settled. Important strikes are not as frequent as 
in former years because of the understandings brought about 
through these agreements. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — ^Write out the answers given by leaders of labor 
unions to the following questions. Use some method by which 
all the questions will be answered and have the answers re- 
ported when the questions are discussed. 

I. Is it fair for unions to bestow great benefits on their 
members, such as pensions, etc? 



Labor Unions 119 

2. How has the advance in wages benefitted the home life 
of working men? 

3. Is the demand of the union for an eight hour day just, 
and why? 

4. Are unions justified in their opposition to child labor? 

5. Is it right for unions to call strikes? 

6. Has the union the right to use violence to cause a strike 
to succeed? 

7. Is it fair for a minority within the unions to claim the 
right to control the labor movements? 

8. Is the closed shop just to the employer or the non-union 
man? 

9. Should unions seek to promote more than their own in- 
terests ? 

10. Would it be just for the unions to classify men on the 
basis of their efficiency? 

11. Is it necessary for labor to organize in the form of 
unions ? 

12. Is labor justified in seeking higher wages? 

13. Is it fair for labor organizations to oppose immigration? 

14. Is it right for labor unions to demand sanitary places 
of work? 

15. Are unions justified in opposing sweatshops? 

16. Is it right that there should be free discussion in labor 
meetings? 

17. Is the demand for safety devices on dangerous machin- 
ery just? 

18. Is it a worthy thing for unions to offer cheap insur- 
ance on their members? 

19. If the unions consider the courts unfair, what peace- 
able means is there for bringing about better conditions? 

20. Is it right for labor leaders to continue a strike simply 
that as union officials they may gain recognition? 

21. Is the union justified in using the boycott? 



CHAPTER XII 



INSURANCE 



Insurance Reduces Risk. Life is a lottery to the savage. In 
hunting and in war all his interests are hazarded. He is 
swayed by the hopes and fears of the gambler. But as nature 
is studied and subdued, and as society develops, the element of 
chance is slowly eliminated from life. Yet there are certain 
emergencies which we are not able to anticipate, which may 
thwart the best laid plans. No matter how skilled a work- 
man may be in his profession or how healthy, he is not sure 
of leading a normal life. The element of risk is always pres- 
ent on account of the uncertainty of life or damage to prop- 
erty. The last and perhaps the most successful means society 
has devised for its stability is insurance. Modern insurance is 
an expression of race ethics of the purest type. It is a means 
society has evolved for protecting itself. Of course men take 
insurance to guard themselves personally, but, in the main, the 
group is protecting its interests. Men must work together, or 
they will harm themselves as individuals. Their social unity 
prevents excessive individual sin. Insurance eliminates a large 
amount of risk from business and makes certain the physical 
comfort of those who may be dependents. 

Extent of Insurance. It may not be known that the insur- 
ance business is in its infancy. The people of the United 
States spend about one-third as much for candy as they do for 
life insurance; they spend three times as much for liquor and 
fifty per cent, more for tobacco. Our life insurance is only about 
one-half of our property insurance. Figures may suggest little, 
yet a consideration of life insurance statistics indicates the stu- 

I20 



Insurance I2i 

pendous interests involved. Policies of this type alone number 
about thirty-five million and represent over twenty-five billions 
of dollars. Nearly one-fifth of our wealth is represented by 
life insurance. To secure this business about seventy-five thou- 
sand men solicit insurance. There are more people interested 
in saving through insurance than in saving by all other methods 
combined. Insurance is an American institution in the sense 
that it is more popular here than in any other country. 

Variety of Insurance. When a ticket is bought at a railroad 
station, protection can also be purchased for a day. When an 
ocean liner is boarded lives may be covered by insurance. If 
there is fear of accident or sickness, provision may be made 
beforehand. If goods are stored, they may be insured. A field 
of grain may be protected from damage by fire, wind, and hail. 
If there is fear of tornado, or fire, or lightning, we may secure 
ourselves against unnecessary losses. Wherever there is dan- 
ger, insurance has so developed that companies will grant poli- 
cies. A famous musician insured his fingers for fifty thousand 
dollars for a season during which he w^as giving concerts. Dur- 
ing hard times when money is difficult to secure, merchants 
may be able to obtain cash by borrowing on large insurance 
policies they are carrying. Men handling large business in- 
terests, and small business interests also, for that matter, find 
it greatly to their advantage to protect themselves by insurance. 
If there is a stringency in the money market, they can turn to 
their policies and secure cash at a low rate of interest. 

Business and Insurance, So much of the business of our 
country is done on a credit basis that if money cannot be read- 
ily secured, there is often grave danger of bankruptcy. With 
almost all of a man's capital invested in a business, he can af- 
ford to take as few risks as possible. Should his building and 
stock burn, he wants to know that they can be replaced, and 
is w^illing to pay for such insurance. Not only is it a common 



122 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

practice for men to insure their property, but if a valuable man 
is at the head of a business and he seems necessary to the suc- 
cess of the company, they may insure him heavily so that, in 
case of his death the business may be reimbursed to such an 
extent that it can stand his loss. 

The Family and Insurance, When the vast majority of 
young people begin life, they have little property with w^hich 
to start. Yet there are certain obligations created by the fam- 
ily life which are assumed. The husband is responsible for 
the maintenance of that life and is under obligations to protect 
it in every way possible. Suppose a young couple are buying 
a home on the installment plan. Is there any way by which, 
if it should burn, they would not lose all their savings? Sup- 
pose sickness should come to the husband, is there any means 
by which he can make provision so as not to become an object 
of charity? What if death should overtake him? Is there 
any previous arrangement he can make by which his family 
may be kept together and clothed and educated? All these 
problems are solved by insurance. For the man in humble cir- 
cumstances, insurance makes it possible to assume the duties of 
the family with a fair measure of assurance that if he is in- 
capacitated for any reason, he still may be able to meet his ob- 
ligations. A single person may need insurance if working for 
a salary and nothing has been saved. In case of sickness or 
accident, he would be dependent on charity if no provisions had 
been made for such an emergency. Or a single person may 
carry life or accident insurance because others are dependent 
upon him. 

A large portion of the American people spend all of their in- 
come. If they do not have some regular way of saving, they 
live a little better and, at the end of the year, find they have 
no reserve. Once a person has taken out insurance, the neces- 
sity of regular payments will generally cause him to save the 



Insurance 123 

amount of the premium, and the end of the year will find him 
with that sum saved. Many people are worth just as much as 
their life insurance that has been paid. 

Principles of Insurance. A simple illustration will show the 
general principles which underlie insurance. Suppose that a 
man has his home burned and has no protection for his loss. 
His neighbors, seeing his predicament, might ask: ^^Is there 
any way by which we can protect our property?" It can be 
readily seen that if six hundred householders paid in eight dol- 
lars a year each, that a fund of four thousand eight hundred 
dollars would be created the first year. Suppose three homes 
were damaged to the extent of one thousand dollars each. 
Those who had suffered loss would have the damages repaired 
or receive a cash equivalent, and still there would be eighteen 
hundred dollars left in the treasury. Suppose it took eight 
hundred dollars for office expenses that year; there would still 
be a surplus of one thousand dollars. This, then, could be put 
out at interest and the next year, because they would have 
more money, the rate could be lowered, or the same rate could 
be maintained and the earnings and surplus put away as a re- 
serve fund, against a time of emergency. Thus a legitimate 
business would grow up which would be of real service to 
those owning homes. By the payment of a small fee, the dan- 
ger of damage by fire or tornado would be eliminated. 

As soon as the business should increase to any considerable 
size, it would be necessary to know how many homes were 
damaged each year in order that the charge for protection 
should not be exorbitant. Statistics of losses would need to 
be collected, and, as they increased in number, a laree com- 
pany would be able to look ahead and tell exactly how much 
would have to be paid for damages each year; what it would 
cost for office expense; what rate of interest it could secure 
on investments; and what amount it would have to charge for 



124 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

protection. What is true of fire insurance would also hold in 
all other forms, such as marine, farm, and life insurance. Sta- 
tistical tables have been compiled until these forms of insurance 
have been reduced to a science. Insurance is a tax, and the 
companies are engaged in collecting that tax and distributing 
it when and where it is most needed. 

The fundamental problem of insurance comes to be: How 
may the many be made to bear fairly the burdens of the few? 
The quintessence of insurance is that, while a man goes about 
his daily tasks, he shall not fear, for society is protecting him 
and his interests. 

Forms of Insurance. Broadly speaking, there are two forms 
of insurance: That of property, and that of life. The first is 
much the older, running back to the days of the Greeks, when 
mariners insured their ship and its cargo. We are more par- 
ticularly interested in life insurance. Companies of this kind 
are of three types: Assessment, Old Line, and Fraternal. 

In the assessment company, regular payments are required to 
meet the losses of the company. As long as the organization 
is new and a large number of young men are secured as mem- 
bers, the cost of insurance will be low, for the death rate will 
not be high. As the company becomes older, the death rate 
increases, for there are not so many young members as formerly. 
Then the rate of insurance has to be advanced, for the losses 
are now greater. These companies generally insert in the pol- 
icy what is called a ^'safety clause,'' which gives them the right 
to raise the rate as losses increase. The disadvantage of this 
sort of insurance is that, while young and able to pay, the 
charges may be low, but when old the company may have to 
advance its rate, and many of the old members will be forced 
to withdraw, and their families will be left without protection. 
Such companies may offer cheap insurance in the beginning, but 
It is only a question of time until they must increase their 



Insurance 125 

charges. 

An **01d Line" insurance company has a fixed rate which 
does not vary. This is the main difference between it and the 
assessment company. The cost of insurance is so well deter- 
mined that a company can tell almost exactly what its charge 
will be. This, then, is the securest insurance obtainable. A 
large enough charge is made to guarantee the payment of all 
losses and also a reasonable profit to the company, so that there 
can be no good reason for an advance in cost. The different 
states have laws by which the investor is safeguarded, and of 
all secure investments, '^old line" insurance is one of the best. 

Fraternal insurance follows the assessment plan, but in such 
companies, in place of the profits going to the company, they 
are turned back to the policy holders. These orders are carried 
on for the mutual benefit of their members. They have an- 
other characteristic feature — they seek to provide social life for 
their members and hold secret meetings at which some ritual 
is observed. In case a person cannot pass a medical examina- 
tion, he may be admitted as a social member, having all the 
privileges of the lodge without insurance. The same danger 
is found here as in the assessment company, in that the rate of 
insurance will have to be increased as the company becomes 
older. 

The policies offered by insurance companies may take a great 
many forms. A person can pay a regular fee during life, or a 
large fee for a fixed number of years and still secure protec- 
tion, or he can pay a still larger fee and be protected and at 
the end of a fixed number of years receive the money he has 
invested. Or, after a certain number of years, he may receive 
an annual payment of a specified sum, called an annuity. Then 
there may be special contracts of innumerable variety. 

Insurance Promotes Business, It is evident that through 
insurance the family and property are protected, but what is 



126 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

not equally plain is that vast sums of money received by in- 
surance companies are returned to the people in the form of 
loans. The laws generally force these companies to have suf- 
ficient funds on hand to meet any emergencies that may arise. 
What, then, is done with the extra money which the com- 
panies possess? Their wealth is used to build railroads, trol- 
ley lines, gas and water companies, improve farms, erect school 
and court houses, build mills, and construct sky-scrapers. In- 
surance makes possible the employment of thousands of work- 
ing men. Every policy holder is a promoter of the business 
interests of the company, for the money held by his company 
is advanced that he and the company may be benefitted by the 
interest received. But in order that these mutual interests may 
be promoted, this money must be set working, and as soon as 
this is the case, the policy holder may rightly feel that he is a 
real promoter of the business interests of the country. 

There is a current conception that the vast sums controlled 
by the insurance companies are used to throttle business, and 
perhaps in a careless way. The fact is, the laws so guard the 
handling of this money that it is fair to ask the question 
whether in any other place in the business world, like sums are 
used with so great care and to such good advantage. In pro- 
moting business interests, insurance companies exercise a service 
second only to that rendered to the policy holders in protecting 
them. 

Insurance Agents. The agents of a life insurance company 
are its selling department and on their efforts the success of 
the business depends. A furniture company that could not sell 
its goods would become insolvent. The same is true of life 
insurance companies. They must secure business to remain in 
business, and the agent is the means by which their interests 
are advanced before the people. When an agent is employed 
by an insurance company, he ought to ask himself: "I§ it 



Insurance 127 

right to engage in this business?'* He will find the answer to 
his question in the advantage which come to the public through 
insurance. That which promotes the interests of the people 
and does harm to none can certainly be said to be legitimate 
business. Any insurance agent can feel when employed by a 
reliable company that, in selling insurance, he is promoting 
thrift, securing protection for others, and advancing business. 

The insurance agent finds keen competition for many com- 
panies are in the field seeking business. As soon as this strug- 
gle for trade arises, moral problems spring up in connection 
with it. Is it right for an agent to speak disparagingly of an- 
other company? Is it right for an agent to seek business when 
another agent is working with a prospective customer and has 
interested him in insurance? Is it right for an agent to take 
another's time in business hours when it is evident he does not 
wish to be disturbed? These and many other problems pre- 
sent themselves for consideration. A standard of that action 
which is just in securing insurance is formulating itself, and 
agents are showing one another much more consideration than 
in earlier periods. The agent is often tempted to write insur- 
ance when it is not a good business risk for his company. It 
takes courage to decline an applicant when at the same time 
the agent loses his commission. Companies may decrease their 
losses by the appointment of reliable agents. It has been too 
easy in the past to secure the right to represent a company. 

In writing insurance two needs must be met, — that of the 
company, and that of the insured. To promote this end the 
company must be able to fulfill its contract and the applicant 
must be of sound mind, good physical condition, good family 
history, and able to make the first payment. 

Reforms, There is need of an educational campaign in our 
country to arouse the people to the realization of the enormous 
waste of property through fires. Nearly three hundred million 



128 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

dollars worth of property is destroyed each year. The passage 
of good building laws and the appointment in cities and towns 
of inspectors with power to enforce such laws; the clearing of 
houses and yards of fire-breeding rubbish; the condemning and 
removal of bad flues, stove pipes and other defects in building; 
and the supervision of all electric wiring, that it shall be done 
in accordance with the National Underwriters* Electric Code; 
the elimination of fire departments from politics and the adop- 
tion of the merit system as the sole qualification for continu- 
ance in service, and the appointment of a national Commis- 
sioner of Insurance whose business it would be to protect the 
public from illusive contracts and from bad practices on the 
part of agents of companies, are needed reforms. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — ^Write the answers given by the local insurance 
agents to the following questions. Use some method by which 
all the questions will be answered and have the answers re- 
ported when the questions are discussed. 

1. Has it been a moral advance that the risk in society has 
decreased with civilization? 

2. Can you give good reasons why a young husband should 
carry insurance? 

3. Can you give circumstances under which a single person 
might profitably carry sickness and accident insurance? 

4. Show how insurance may promote thrift. 

5. What keeps insurance rates from becoming excessive? 

6. What benefits are peculiar to fraternal insurance? 

7. How does an investment in insurance compare with 
other business investments for safety? 

8. Has an agent treated his company right when he secured 



Insurance 129 

for them an undesirable risk? Why is an agent tempted to 
secure for the company such risks? 

9. Is it wrong for a man to endanger his neighbor's prop- 
erty by a careless use of his own? 

10. Is it wrong for a man to endanger his own property by 
leaving inflammable material about the house? 

11. Is it fair for a man to receive payment on a house 
which has burned when he has only put in fifteen or twenty 
dollars in premiums? 

12. Why is "old line" insurance the safest? 

13. Why does a man who carries insurance promote the 
business interests of the country? 

14. Is selling insurance as an agent a legitimate business? 

15. If, through neglect of his own property, another man's 
house is destroyed, is the careless one guilty? 

16. Name some reforms needed in insurance. 



CHAPTER XIII 

WOMEN IN BUSINESS 

The Presence of Women in Industry, Seventy years ago, 
seven employments were open to women: household service, 
type-setting, needlework, teaching, work in cotton mills or 
book binderies, and keeping boarders. In 1845, eleven 
medical schools refused admittance to Elizabeth Blackwell 
before she was accepted as a student. Woman was 
first admitted to the bar in 1864. She was first 
ordained to the ministry in 1852. The first daily paper, called 
The Daily Courant, was edited, it is said, by Elizabeth Mal- 
let. Mrs. Lydia Maria Child edited the Anti-Slavery Standard 
in 1 84 1. Now the right of women in business and professional 
life is nowhere disputed. She is found working at stenogra- 
phy, politics, foreign and home missions, nursing, hotel man- 
agement, reporting and editorial work, juvenile court reform, 
chemistry, bacteriology, dress-making, banking, insurance, real 
estate, advertising, teaching, domestic science, law, medicine, 
library work, agriculture, sales management and manufacture; 
in fact, in almost all lines of activity in which men are en- 
gaged. Women are found in all but eight of the three hun- 
dred occupations in which men are working. Yet nearly every 
advance of women in business has been opposed by both men 
and women. There is still a strong prejudice against their 
entrance into the professions as well as when they seek to ex- 
tend the fields of their endeavor in business. 

The development of society shows that women first did the 
hard work of the world. The Indian hunted and fished; the 
squaw planted the corn, wove the blankets and dressed the 
skins. Prior to the present generation, the home has been the 

130 



Women in Business 13 1 

work shop. There women made linsey-woolsey, hosiery of 
wool, cotton and thread, coarse cloth, serges, jeans and mus- 
lins, flannels, checked and striped cotton and linen goods, sheet- 
ing, toweling, table linen, bed ticking and different combina- 
tions of wool and cotton, and flax and cotton. She also cured 
the meat, manufactured candles, made soap, looked after the 
garden, and in spare time, aided in the farm work. Much 
that she made was exported and formed a large part of the 
articles of commerce. 

The Change in the Nature of Woman's Work, When we 
stop to consider, we see that this is the first time in history 
that large numbers of women have leisure. Of the work done 
in the world they have always performed a part equal to that 
of the men. The introduction of machinery has taken from 
women the work which they have been accustomed to do for 
centuries. In place of her home being a work shop, in which 
she was a manufacturer, the factory system has gradually taken 
woman's occupation from her. For a while this increased the 
employment of men, for lines of activity in which they had not 
been engaged were opened to them when factories were estab- 
lished. But this condition of affairs continued only for a short 
time, as women left their homes for the factories that they 
might become wage-earners as well as producers. As they 
gained in education and in skill, they displaced men. Not 
stopping with the new industries which had been created, they 
entered a number of distinctly masculine occupations and 
were successful. The change in industrial conditions from 
hand-made articles to factory-made products, from the home as 
the center of industry to the factory as a new center, brought 
about far-reaching modifications in the work of women. 

Apart from the commercial change, suggested above, the 
next factor in importance which has caused woman to assume 
a new position in industry, is education. She may now gain 



13^ ^n Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

admission to schools that will train her for any work. Great 
masses of American women are receiving that technical educa- 
tion which makes them the equals of men in business and the 
professions alike. 

Her New Environment (a) Physical Conditions. When 
women entered modern business life, they found the factory 
system in its infancy. With the development of that system 
many questionable practices arose. Heavy work, long hours, 
filthy, unsanitary conditions, and dangerous machinery all 
claimed their toll of human life. While many of our factories 
are clean, the hours short and the work pleasant and not dan- 
gerous, this can be said of only a portion of them. In 
laundries, sweat shops, cotton mills, canning factories, multi- 
tudes of women work under revolting circumstances. As an 
example of conditions where w^omen are tortured as they work, 
we might note the laborers in some of the laundries in one of 
our great cities. At times the water stands ankle deep in the 
wash room because of poor drainage. The dressing rooms are 
unhealthy, verminous and the plumbing is faulty. The over- 
heated rooms are almost unbearable. At one place, after dip- 
ping shirts in hot starch all day, when the workers stepped 
outside the building, they thought it was cool, although the 
thermometer registered 96 in the shade. Fingers are often 
mashed in the mangles and hands are burned on the hot cylin- 
ders under which the collars are run rapidly. The better class 
of work must be placed within one-fourth inch of the mangle. 

The hours are long, ranging from ten to twelve a day, with 
thirty minutes for lunches. The wages are low and no holi- 
days are given, not even Christmas or Fourth of July. Yet 
competition is so keen that a number of these poorly equipped 
laundries are forced out of business every year. Of course in 
many laundries the machinery is protected and conditions are 
sanitary. While there are many places where the natural con- 



Women in Business 133 

ditions for women are undesirable, there are many favorable 
physical surroundings under which they work. The great 
army of school teachers, department store clerks and stenog- 
raphers have comfortable places in which to labor. In fact the 
place of business is often much more attractive than the home. 
The average woman in business has comfortable surroundings 
and in addition there is the attraction of regular hours and 
routine duties. While questionable conditions are brought 
sharply to our notice because they are not normal, we ought to 
remember that the majority of woman workers are in favor- 
ble physical conditions while at their tasks. 

{h) Economic and Moral Conditions, In the candy box 
factory during rush seasons, women work from thirteen to 
fourteen hours a day and from five to eight hours on Sunday, 
making a total of eighty-eight to ninety-two hours a week. 
During the summer they work but three or four days a week, 
so they desire to make up time at Christmas, since theirs is 
piecework and they can thus raise their average wage. Women 
that work in paper box factories have regular work, but 
Christmas makes a rush season for them also. 

The shirt waist makers of New York City were forced to 
strike because they were not receiving a living wage. Pitiful 
stories of their attempts to make a living and the impossibility 
of their earning enough for food, clothing and shelter became 
widely known through their strike. The fire in the Triangle 
Building in which a large number of workers were killed called 
special attention to the carelessness of employers and the state 
in neglecting to provide safety appliances. 

Our great department stores depend for their clerks upon 
women w^hose meager salaries often make it very hard for 
them to live. What may be said of department store clerks 
applies equally well to waitresses and factory employees. In- 
vestigations have shown that the average wage of such workers 



134 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

is hardly sufficient to clothe, feed and house them and give 
them legitimate recreation. 

There are large numbers of women in industry who find it 
necessary to earn but a portion of their support. They have 
homes in the communities where they work and supplement the 
family income by their labors. These keep down the wages 
of regular employees who are dependent on their own efforts for 
their full support. They are not forced by economic condi- 
tions to do wrong because home influences are about them and 
they have good food, comfortable clothing and housing and a 
place where they can receive company. While we cannot say 
that they should not add to the revenues of the family by their 
efforts, they do make difficult the existence of those wholly de- 
pendent on their own resources Women in industry are sub- 
ject to severe temptation and open to insults, almost irrespec- 
tive of the salary they receive. When they are poor and the 
retaining of a position is necessary to keep them from starva- 
tion, those employing and superintending their labor have op- 
portunities to mistreat them. 

While business may have its dangers for women it also has 
enriched their lives in many ways. It has widened their ho- 
rizon and is more wholesome because of their presence. Daily 
contact with many people gives them an opportunity to exert 
a wide influence. Many women work under excellent moral 
conditions and develop there the finest qualities of mind and 
heart. The sense of the necessity of something which comes 
from labor, the wide human sympathy which is the portion of 
those who understand the problems of the great army of 
workers, and that tact, faithfulness and cooperation which are 
necessary for successful endeavor are all the fruits of their labor. 
They have often been able to aid their parents and their brothers 
and sisters and their children and to realize the ambitions 
which were most vital to them because they have had a part 



Women in Business 135 

in business. Yet these women in business should be zealous 
to keep the home instinct alive. 

Competition With Men, While the number of male 
workers in fifty years increased about fifty per cent., the num- 
ber of female workers increased over two hundred per cent. 
Women gained constantly in their percentage of the total 
amount of work, and that gain was largest where machinery 
had been most highly developed. Even carpenter work has 
been taken over in part by the women. In the planing mills 
and sash and blind factories of Chicago and Wisconsin, wo- 
men do the work for about one-fourth of the price which men 
receive in other states. They cannot help but force down the 
wages of the working men. This is particularly true when 
the labor is piece work. About ten per cent, of the women 
employed in the manufacturing industries are married. These 
usually seek work, not from choice, but because circumstances 
make it necessary for them to make a part or the whole of 
their own living. 

When women entered business, they stepped out of a con- 
dition of dependence and became self-supporting. The low 
wages they received may be accounted for on the ground of 
their lack of commercial knowledge, their lack of professional 
skill, their former dependence, the necessity of supporting but 
one person and their unwillingness to continue in business as 
a life work. Most women look on business as a make-shift 
until they are settled in a home. When society is sure of their 
efficiency and continuance in industry and when they carry the 
same number of financial responsibilities as fathers of families, 
then their wages may be made equal to those of men. The 
wages paid men in industry takes into account their obliga- 
tions which they owe to others and, because business with them 
IS a life work, their employer may expect to gain the advan- 
tage of their years of experience. 



136 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

The Home, In the past the labor of a married woman did 
not unfit her for motherhood. With her work at home, she 
could stop at almost any time of the day and care for her chil- 
dren. They were under her eye; their wants could be met 
and she could teach them to deal fairly with their parents and 
with other children and older people. Under the modern sys- 
tem of business the place of her labor is away from the home. 
Her children are either in business, in the street, at the school, 
or at home. In any case, they do not have a mother's care. 
While she struggles for bread, they often fail to gain moral 
strength, and they grow away from her. The unmarried wo- 
man is also trained away from motherhood. Success in busi- 
ness demands the best part of one's time and strength. Young 
women become expert stenographers, saleswomen, librarians, 
etc. and receive little or no training in cooking, dress-making 
and household management. They are fitted to do the work 
of men and unskilled in woman's work. When married, they 
are often inefficient, and hence discontented. 

The Necessity of Women in Industry, Yet we cannot 
blame women for entering the business world. They have been 
forced to do it. As in the past they labored at home and con- 
tributed to the support of the family, so now they go into the 
factories to do the same thing. So long as men receive a wage 
less than is necessary to provide the necessities of life and its 
common comforts, women will be found laboring with them 
to supplement their income. Woman has found development 
in work in the past. To become a parasite would mean dis- 
satisfaction. Women need occupations as much as occupations 
need them. When isolated and given trivial tasks, they often 
promote some public interest that they may have the satisfac- 
tion of doing some worthy work. They want to use the lei- 
sure which education and civilization have given in some use- 
ful way. 



Women in Business 137 

Education in domestic science, sewing, and household eco- 
nomics will not keep women at home. It may increase the ef- 
ficiency of those who are well supported, but an education 
which demands the expenditure of money will not hold at the 
fireside those women who need food, clothing, shelter and rec- 
reation. Society has gone a long ways towards making it pos- 
sible for one man to support a family, but we are still far 
from that ideal condition. Women are in business because of 
necessity, because they are forced there, and as long as such is 
the case we should be slow to condemn their presence. We 
should acknowledge the fact that they are there because social 
circumstances have so placed them, and then in these actual 
conditions we should strive to better their lot. 

Advancements, Our educational system might be so revised 
that girls who enter business might be taught those subjects 
which will aid them to be industrially efficient. Such subjects 
as stenography, book-keeping, domestic science, dress-making, 
decorating, and general business methods and practices might 
constitute a portion of the high school course in our cities and 
larger towns. The school system should exist for the benefit 
of the people and not to promote any abstract and precon- 
ceived system of education and it should contribute first to 
their industrial efficiency, especially when that is the primary 
need. 

Organizations of women are helping to solve their problems. 
The Y. W. C. A., girls' boarding clubs, commissions, and wo- 
man's clubs are bettering the conditions of working women. 

As men are organized into labor unions, and thus protected, 
so the skilled workers among women ought to organize that 
they may guard and promote their special interests. Of course 
such organizations would be most beneficial to skilled workers, 
for it is easier for them to secure their demands than where 
workers are unskilled. 



138 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

The state has its duty to perform. It can demand of fac- 
tory owners that conditions shall be sanitary, limit the number 
of working hours a day, appoint factory inspectors and de- 
mand that a minimum wage be paid women workers. Factory 
owners can and have accomplished much for the welfare of 
their employees by providing lunch rooms, caring for them in 
sickness, promoting healthful recreations, and more important 
than all else, paying the largest possible wage consistent with 
business safety. 

If suffrage is granted to woman, she will then have power 
to formulate and promote those laws which are to her own 
advantage and for the welfare of her children. 

Now there is need of a finer chivalry than in ancient days. 
Then women were protected by strong men and with a sword, 
if necessary. Now women stand alone and defenseless while 
doing hard tasks in the working world. The modern knight 
is considerate and kind to her and protects her in every possi- 
ble way, and is, it seems to me, more of a knight than in the 
days of old. 



QUESTIONS 



m 



Note: — ^Write out the answers given by women in busi- 
ness to the following questions. Use some method by which 
all the questions will be answered and have the answers re- 
ported when the questions are discussed. 

1. Why have women workers left the home? 

2. Is it right to pay women less than a living wage? 

3. Are girls who enter business entitled to a vocational ed- 
ucation in the public school? 

4. What parties are responsible for unsanitary factories? 

5. Do you know of dangerous places where women work 



Women in Business 139 

that might be protected? 

6. Are women dependent on their own efforts for a living 
justified in taking work from men? 

7. If industry unfits for motherhood, what justification 
would you offer for women in industry? 

8. Is society justified in paying women lower wages than 
men? 

9. Why are women generally in business? 

10. Ought business women to form trade unions? 

11. What is the greatest single benefit an employer may 
confer on his workers? 

12. Have women, as a class, always been producers? 

13. How has education aided women in industry? 

14. Are women entitled to study in professional schools? 

15. What parties are responsible for accidents to women 
from unprotected machinery? 

16. Why does fine machinery make possible in the increas- 
ed employment of women? 

17. Is a daughter of a well-to-do family justified in enter- 
ing business? 

18. How would you answer a person who says married 
women should stay at home and take care of the children? 

19. Does modern business unfit a w^oman for motherhood? 

20. What would you consider some of the obligations of 
the state to women in industry? 

21. Ought poor widows with children to be pensioned by 
the state? 



PART IV 
THE GOVERNMENT 



CHAPTER XIV 



POLITICAL PARTIES 



Definition of a Political Party, A political party is an or- 
ganization of citizens having leaders, aims, and a constituency; 
and seeking, or in control of a government. Some would 
separate a party from its leaders, but popular judgment will 
not admit such a division. Organizations derive their impetus 
from individuals of insight and force, and are not apart from 
or above them. Yet a party is more than leaders. It is as 
Burke says: *'A body of men united for promoting by their 
joint endeavors the national interests upon some point in 
which they are all agreed.'' A party must stand for certain 
principles which are held to be for the general good. We 
could not appropriately use the name party to indicate a group 
that was without purposes; and no party would make an ap- 
peal for support without holding that its measures were for 
public benefit. The increased division of labor is demanding 
of us a finer co-operation. Hence, in forming an opinion of 
that which is good for ourselves, we must take into considera- 
tion that which is good for society. What is really good for 
one is profitable to the other. 

The Growth of Political Parties. When our forefathers 
framed the Constitution of the United States, they had in mind 
the prevention of the usurpation of power by the President. In 
the mother country the struggle had been to keep the king from 
getting too much power. The check placed upon him was 
the House of Lords and Commons. These bodies were the 
places where public opinion was formed, and by which it was 
expressed. Parliament was an organization which expressed 

143 



144 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

the will of the whole people as against the tyranny of a king. 
It was a balance wheel to the king's power. When the 
founders of our government framed the Constitution, the prob- 
lem before them was how to prevent the President of the Uni- 
ted States from acquiring too much power. Congress was 
made the check to the President. The people looked upon 
Congress as a deliberative body working toward the welfare of 
the nation as a whole, and restraining the President. By the 
Constitution powers were so delegated to the President and 
Congress that one balanced the other. The members of Con- 
gress came from parts of the country separated by great dis- 
tances, and in open debate they learned what constituted gen- 
eral public opinion and crystallized it. They not only became 
aware of public opinion, but gave it expression as representa- 
tives of all the people. 

But changes took place in our national life which caused 
Congress no longer to represent all the people. The telephone, 
telegraph, railroad and newspaper brought the nation together 
so that it had formed its opinions before Congress could assem- 
ble. When the people became more intelligent and better in- 
formed they wanted men in Congress to work for measures in 
which they were interested. When members of Congress be- 
gan to represent only a small section of the country, and had 
been pledged to a given policy before their election. Congress 
ceased to be a body whose supreme interest was the welfare of 
the nation, and was changed to an organization where each 
man sought to get all possible for himself, on the theory that if 
each received what he wanted the general government would 
take care of itself. That left the President to represent the 
country at large, and the members of Congress, their respective 
districts. Thus, the hands of the President were tied. He 
wanted certain things for the nation, but national welfare and 
the local interests of the members of Congress conflicted, and 



Political Parties 145 

the President found himself powerless. 

The tariff illustrates this conflict. A low tariff on wool 
may be to the advantage of the nation as a whole, but the 
states where wool is grown frantically oppose it, for it harms 
a local interest. Giving and taking, the members of Congress 
frame the tariff schedule, not for the general government, but 
for local interests, and the President is often a spectator. The 
Constitution made it impossible to get the business of the gov- 
ernment accomplished, for it set against one another two parties 
who could not help but disagree. 

The Constitution so handicapped the administrative officers 
of the government that it was necessary to devise some new 
method by which the will of the people might be expressed. 
The Constitution had not provided for the nomination of can- 
didates. That left the way open for party machinery. If a 
party could control nominations, it could control the govern- 
ment. Parties rapidly build up the machinery necessary for 
the nomination of candidates, and thus when a majority of any 
party was elected, it had secured the control of the government. 
The President and Congress ceased in point of fact to repre- 
sent the people, and became instruments of a party. Then, 
government was by a fraction, called a majority, and not by 
the whole people. The striking thing about party government 
in the United States is that control of the government has 
passed into the hands of parties, and hence parties are organ- 
ized for the purpose of getting control of the machinery of the 
government. The governm^ent is something to be exploited 
by a party. 

We find ourselves in a peculiar position in that the great 
power of government has passed from the place where the 
Constitution meant it to be into the hands of machines, which 
the Constitution as such does not recognize. Parties find them- 
selves in control of the government, except in so far as the 



146 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

Constitution makes certain definite requirements. 

The party was a natural growth. It was inevitable that in 
a democracy such as our own it should come to a place of su- 
preme power because the organization of our government and 
its subsequent growth made it necessary. 

^John Adams writes in his diary of February 1763, that he 
had learned a crowd of men met in the garret of Tom Daws, 
and elected all the men that were to hold public office, before 
the town meeting was held. Even early in colonial times we 
find the political machine. 

The political convention developed the party boss, who came 
to be the real ruler of the party. There are certain forces seek- 
ing to control parties, — the bosses, the corporations, labor un- 
ions, the immoral, and the common people. 

The Disadvantages of Political Parties, Great corporations 
have vast business interests, and desiring not to be hindered in 
such activities, or seeking special favors, they lobby against laws 
that harm them and for measures that advance their interests, 
and they often do not hesitate to bribe whoever can be bought. 
Labor unions at one time entered politics and made a complete 
failure of their efforts to control through a party. Since that 
time they have been active in politics, and can hardly help it, 
for they want many laws in favor of laborers that do not exist, 
and the only way to secure them is through a party. They 
may again enter politics and seek to realize their ambitions 
through a party as an instrument. 

In many places, those who are engaging in evil practices pay 
whatever may be necessary to the parties in power to secure pro- 
tection. The vice of a city seeks the protection of the party 
• authority, and often secures it. When a vice, such as the 
liquor business, enters politics even the strongest parties hesi- 



^Atlantic Monthly. loi : pp. 145, 156. 



Political Parties t47 

tate to offend. 

There remains control of parties by the masses of the people. 
But, as long as there is no legal method by which machinery 
can be maintained, there will always be the temptation to party 
leaders to grant privileges for money in order that the party 
may be financed. The most common means of raising revenue 
for a political party in the past has been the ''spoils system." 
Under this any person who aided the party in securing power, 
accepted it as his right that he should be rewarded with an 
office. Thus, public offices have come to be conceived as the 
pay a party can give for service on its behalf. Party officials 
have viewed the government as something to be ''fleeced," and 
have taken from it directly. The methods of the Tw^eed ring 
is a sufficient illustration. Then party leaders may threaten 
corporations, who, to save themselves from legal disasters be- 
cause of laws that could be passed, pay large sums of money. 
Again, the licensing of vice by the local boss has filled the 
coffers of the party machine. 

Perhaps the greatest disadvantage to party control is the dis- 
regard for law engendered thereby. Party control is by a ma- 
jority, and often when a party has secured power, it enacts 
laws which express its convictions. But, in the minority there 
are many good men who may oppose these laws. ^Almost any 
law can be enforced when evil men oppose it, but when a large 
number of the good resent the demands of a law, it becomes a 
dead letter. Then, the minority may become a majority, and 
change the laws to suit itself. This shifting of the law^ breeds 
contempt of law in the minds of the people. If law^s are not 
stable, and are to be changed by whichever party may be in 
control, and are opposed by an honest minority, why should 
they be respected? Legislation by party has led to a disregard 



*Hadley: Standards of Public Morality, p. 109. 



148 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

of law, and this is a serious charge that can be brought 
against party management. When the American people lose 
their respect for the law, then democracy is in danger, and loss 
of respect for law can be laid, in part, at the door of party 
control. 

The Advantages of Political Parties, Yet we should re- 
member also that parties are a great benefit to our democracy. 
If any measure for the benefit of the people is to become a 
law, it must receive the support of some party. There are few 
advances which take place without the support of political par- 
ties. These are the mighty machinery which society has de- 
vised for promoting its own interests, and they largely fulfill 
their mission. 

Parties are the instruments by which we seek to maintain 
equality of industrial, political and civil rights. Through 
them we have public surveillance of health, enact measures 
which make it possible for men to earn an adequate livelihood, 
control centralization of power, protect family life that chil- 
dren may grow into useful citizens, advance our educational in- 
terests, and secure to individuals the enjoyment of religious 
privileges. If each individual had his way there would be no 
national progress, for the opinions of men differ. But, since 
they group in large bodies, the party becomes a stable factor in 
government as minor differences are brushed aside and men 
mass on fundamental issues. Party control guarantees a some- 
what consistent policy and line of activity. This gives the 
element of permanence needed, while new views within the 
party or a change of party in power give us the flexibility nec- 
essary to good government. 

Broadly speaking, there are two classes in politics; profes- 
sional politicians and ordinary citizens. The latter are free 
in the sense they are not under any financial obligation to an 
organization, and their living does not depend on its favor. 



Political Parties I49 

They can cast their votes according to their convictions. They 
are the real guardians of good government, for their decisions 
are public opinion expressed, and public opinion is the greatest 
force in society. 

The citizen may be too indifferent to take an intelligent in- 
terest in what is being done. So long as there is no striking 
disorder, he may be content to be a social parasite and let 
things drift, or party spirit may so blind the eyes of a citizen 
that he may not be conscious of the defects of his organization. 

That a man may take part in politics certain qualifications 
are needed. He should have sufficient knowledge to under- 
stand the great aims that lead to national or local well being. 
He should be able to judge whether the definite or concrete 
measures being advocated promote these ends, and he should 
be free from prejudice to the extent that in political matters 
he is not warped. 

One of the safe guards of our democracy is the school. 
Here we receive an education which enables us to sense the 
issues, judge of their value, and to decide with a minimum of 
prejudice. When non-professional politicians judge with ra- 
pidity and fairness on political issues, then the success of de- 
mocracy is assured, and our schools should have much to do 
with training in such judgments. 

Politicians, The professional politician is engaged in a busi- 
ness just as any man in any other calling. Politics furnishes to 
him a means of livelihood and of service to his fellows. It 
takes time for a man to rise to a place of leadership, and it also 
costs money. Men are not elected to office offhand. There 
are always hangers-on who want money to turn votes to can- 
didates, and who have the power to harm them if not satisfied. 
Then, there is the danger of not believing in all respects with 
your party and jeopardizing your political standing by break- 
ing from the ranks of the party on some issues. When a poli- 



150 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

tician separates himself from his party on a part of its policies, 
he stands in danger of being cast out, and that means he has 
no place to turn for a living in politics, once he surrenders the 
chance to exert the influence which was his as a member of a 
party. It is a serious matter for a politician to break with hU 
party. The ringing sentence of a party man when said: **I 
would rather be right than be President,'* can cheer those who 
differ in vital issues with their party, After all, the politician 
cannot claim exemption from sacrifice for the right any more 
than any other man. It is a common obligation placed upon 
all who seek to lead virtuous lives. The politician who con- 
tinues to be in favor with the people must convince them that 
he is seeking to promote their welfare. As soon as they are 
sure that he is selfish in his motives and acts, they have no 
further use for him, and the public is a keen critic. 

The Rise of Parties, The conditions of society are con- 
stantly changing. New problems are arising. Truth is be- 
ing added to the fund of knowledge, making us more responsi- 
ble. There will be real differences of opinion as to the prob- 
lems facing a people at any time and as to the best solutions 
for these problems. These conditions give rise to different 
parties which offer various methods of meeting our needs. 
These parties may be honest in their beliefs although they do 
not agree. The real division of parties is along the line of 
those who are progressive and those who are conservative. 

The history of political parties shows that it is very hard 
to reform them. Once a party has let its opinions become 
sharply defined it is difficult for it to change them materially. 
When such is the case, there are soon found within the party 
those who disagree with it on issues that are vital. It may 
hold the turbulent element within itself for some time but it 
is probable that, when this element has gained sufficient 
strength, it will split off and form a new party. As long as 



Political Parties 151 

the citizen finds he agrees with his party on its fundamental 
beliefs he may stay with it even though he does differ from it 
in minor points. When he finds that he no longer agrees with 
it on the fundamentals he may see if there is a party in the 
field advocating his real convictions. If his essential convic- 
tions are not advocated by any party or if there are issues more 
vital to him not promoted by the old parties he looks for a 
new party with which he is in sympathy. 

Advancements, It was an advance in politics when laws 
were passed requiring the publication of the expense accounts 
of candidates. The public could judge of the organization in- 
terested in the candidates. There has been an advance in late 
years in the freedom with which men break across party lines 
in voting. It shows they are more interested in principles than 
in party machines. This shifting vote is not to be regarded 
lightly. It is an open question whether the initiative and refer- 
endum is a step in advance. The day may come when parties 
will have a legal standing which they do not possess, when the 
written law and the actual working of the government will be 
closer together. There is much discussion at the present time 
whether women should have the ballot or not. We will not 
go into the arguments for and against woman's suffrage. It 
is sufficient to say that as rapidly as any considerable number 
of women in the United States want to vote, they will be given 
the legal right to do so. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Can a man be too loyal to a party? 

2. Is a man justified in attending to his private business to 
jthe neglect of politics? 

3. Should a man use a party for personal interests? 

4. Would you vote for a weak man who was honest, or a 
strong man of questionable integrity? 



152 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

5. Would It be just to enact a law fining those who with- 
out reasonable excuse refuse to vote? 

6. Would It be advisable that mayors of cities be appointed 
by civil service rules? 

7. Is it right to form your political convictions from one 
newspaper ? 

8. Is it right to vote a ticket because your father did? 

9. Is one justified in holding aloof from any political party? 

10. Why did many good men refuse to join the Prohibi- 
tion party? 

11. Is it justifiable to use questionable means to obtain 
worthy ends? 



CHAPTER XV 



MUNICIPAL CONTROL 



Extent of the Interests of a City Government, A city is a 
great corporation in which business should be transacted for the 
benefit of its members. The extent of the interests of a city 
government is suggested by the curriculum of the Workers' 
School of Municipal Government in connection with the 
Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy: *^Housing, build- 
ing regulation, and fire protection; municipal revenue and ex- 
penditure; gas, electric light and power and telephone; water, 
drainage and sewerage; streets, alleys and garbage; health, 
smoke, smells, and noises; educational and vocational adjust- 
ment; parks, playgrounds and beaches; police justice, penal in- 
stitutions, reformatories and charities; city charters and city 
planning, efficiency and organization; labor conditions." 

The city of Dusseldorf, Prussia, has opened a college for 
training higher city officials. 

Growth in City Control, The city has more and more 
taken charge of the life of its members. The growth in 
medical aid to city dwellers shows the paternalism of the city. 
Twenty years ago we had city hospitals and physicians for the 
poor of the city. Now there are tuberculosis inspectors, food, 
milk and drug inspectors, tenement inspectors, smoke inspec- 
tors, bacteriologists and even school dentists, public bathhouse 
keepers and play ground directors. 

Many cities pay for public lectures on hygienic feeding and 
sanitation. One has said, *'Every death from typhoid fever is 
either suicide or murder.'* The cost of governing the cities of 
our country is greater than the cost of governing the nation. 

153 



154 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

These cities have free schools and parks; nearly all have alms 
houses and hospitals, playgrounds, public baths, zoological 
gardens, gas plants, and electric plants. More and more the 
city is acting as a parent and regarding its members as brothers 
and sisters in a family. This has led to the city seeking to 
promote the interests of its people in innumerable ways. 

The Water Supply. Most of the cities in our country own 
their water systems. The water supply of a city is very im- 
portant. In case of fire if the water supply is inadequate the 
fire department is helpless. Water also carries many disease 
germs. If it is not pure, the dreaded disease, typhoid fever, is 
common. Cities use lakes, rivers, artesian wells, and made 
wells as sources for their water. The officers of a city recog- 
nize the importance, for health and safety, of a pure and ade- 
quate supply of water, and as the people are so deeply con- 
cerned in the water supply, there is a growing tendency for 
the city to control it for itself. Municipal electric lighting 
plants are more common than municipal gas plants. 

Transportation, The transportation facilities of most cities 
are under private control. New York City owns and operates 
two lines of municipal ferries and is the exception rather than 
the rule. A city cannot prosper with poor means of transpor- 
tation for the people will then group together to be near the 
center of the city, and crowded apartments will result. With 
as many as three thousand people in one block in New York 
City, the population is abnormally congested. If there is not 
rapid transit, the factory will crowd close to the home and de- 
stroy the freedom which comes to the worker in being sepa- 
rated from his business. When it is remembered that milk is 
frequently forty hours in transit from the dairy to the city, it 
is seen how necessary it is that it be no longer delayed in 
reaching the consumer. Without facilities for rapid transpor- 
tation city dwellers are often without wholesome food, are 



Municipal Control 155 

drawn together in small areas, and are open to all the ills of 
congestion of population and of oppressive industrialism. 

Municipal Amusements. Portland, Rochester, and Pitts- 
burgh have municipal organs and organists, and the players re- 
ceive as much as five thousand dollars a year. Boston has mu- 
nicipal gymnasia, and plans one for every section of the city 
of tw^o hundred thousand people. Each has baths and some 
have swimming pools. Most of our cities have public play- 
grounds, and all have parks. Some have municipal bards and 
orchestras whose concerts are largely attended. Our cities could 
well afford municipal theatres w^here the best talent could be 
heard at a moderate cost. Moving picture shows now furnish 
entertainment at a low price and keep people from the saloon. 
In many places public dance halls are supervised by city of- 
ficers. 

Education. There are educational advancements that pro- 
mote the welfare of the people. In addition to the regular day 
schools and the public libraries, there are evening schools. In 
these latter schools, using the equipment of the day schools. 
many foreigners are taught English and some of the simple 
trades. Here they are made self-supporting and taught the 
language without which they cannot hope to succeed. Mu- 
nicipal art galleries aid in an appreciation of the beautiful, and 
museums of natural science are educational forces. News- 
papers spread the events of the day and furnish common topics 
of conversation. The city itself is a great school in which its 
pupils are taught by the things that surround them and by the 
events that occur. 

Tenements. With the growth of factories, people became 
crowded for they wanted to live near their work or were not 
able to get away. New York houses about one thousand peo- 
ple to the acre, while Bombay has about seven hundred and 
fifty in a similar area. 



156 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

In 1909, Commissioner Murphy of New York found there 
were 360,000 rooms with no windows or such small ones as 
were of no use. At the present time this evil in that city is 
almost wholly corrected. In Chicago the sweatshop system is 
confined to the garment workers. They have no organization 
for they are separated by language, religion and nationality. 
Many of these tenement dwellers carry garments to their homes 
to be made up there. A resident of Hull House describes 
the condition of one of these rooms: ^'A bedroom where two 
men were found at work, was 7x7x8 feet, and contained a bed, 
a machine, one chair, a reeking lamp and two men. The bed 
seems not to have been made up in weeks; and on the bed in 
a heap there lay two overcoats, two hats, a mass of bed covers, 
and nine tan colored capes trimmed with ecru lace, a tenth 
cape being on the machine in process of stitching. The whole 
dwelling was found to crawl with vermin, and the capes were 
not free from it.'' Another case is also cited: An experienced 
cloak maker began work at fourteen. He worked twenty 
years and during that time was temperate and faithful. He 
was found in a rear basement, four of his children were sick 
with pneumonia and without food, and he was unfit to do work. 
Two doctors pronounced him an old man at thirty-four. Mu- 
nicipal tenements where the rate of rent is not so high and 
where the dwellings are sanitary, may aid in altering these 
conditions. Such dwellings will do much to solve the problem 
of the housing of the poor. In many places in Europe they 
have proven successful. They provide a sanitary, wholesome 
place in which to live at a cost within the wage of unskilled 
laborers. 

Charities, The charity work of a city is extensive. Here 
are found Helping Hand Institutes, missions, the Salvation 
Army, charity hospitals and alms houses, the regular charity 
workers, social settlements and many other fornijs of arganized 



Municipal Control 157 

effort; at times the cities appropriate large sums of money to 
provide work for the unemployed and to satisfy immediate 
needs. Each city has as a part of its government means by 
v^hich it promotes the welfare of those who for various reasons 
are destitute. 

Police Corruption. When those into whose hands is given 
the enforcement of law connive with criminals for a portion of 
their spoil, the city has within itself a means of decay. It is 
common knowledge that the police officers of many cities are 
in league with thieves and receive a part of the booty. To 
tolerate such a condition is to harbor disintegration. When the 
custodians of the law, sworn to uphold it, turn criminals and 
use their office as a means of corruption, then the system that 
brought about such a condition needs to be superseded by some 
more efficient method of government. Strict civil service re- 
quirements for office, irrespective of politics or religion, might 
aid in reform. 

The commission form of government, originating in Gal- 
veston, is being tried in a number of our cities at this time. 
Here men are elected, irrespective of party, on the basis of 
merit, and given definite responsibilities. Then if not efficient, 
when a commission form of government is linked with the re- 
call, an officer can be voted on again and retained or dis- 
charged. This naturally places the government in the hands 
of capable men who are directly responsible to the people. We 
ought not to be too hopeful over a change in the form of city 
government. What is needed above all else, irrespective of the 
method of control, is honest and upright men in office. Yet 
some methods are better devised to lessen corruption than 
others. 

Taxes. A small per cent, of the people of a city own prop- 
erty and pay its taxes. The rest are, in away, ''transients." The 
cost of taxation is constantly increasing to make the city beau- 



158 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

tiful and healthy. Should the taxes ever equal the rent, the 
city will then have practically confiscated the property, and the 
dream of the socialist will be partly realized, for control of 
property will have passed into the hands of the government. 

Civic Improvement, City planning is coming to be a rec- 
ognized science. It treats the city as a unit and lays it out so 
that in the future there will be an orderly and aesthetic devel- 
opment of the community. Washington is beautiful because 
our first President secured his friend, Peter Charles L'Enfant, 
a French engineer, to aid him in planning it. They planned 
for a city of about a million. It is one of the most beautiful 
of our cities. Cleveland, Seattle, Denver, Chicago, Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore and many other cities have extensive plans for 
reconstructing parts of the city so that the municipal buildings 
may be conveniently grouped and that there may be an artistic 
civic center. A city plan for a municipal center would involve 
the reconstruction of the business centers of a number of our 
cities and that at a great cost. 

Control of Public Utilities. Cities have found it necessary 
for the welfare of the people to assume direct control of many 
forms of business. How far that control may develop profit- 
ably is an open question. Complete municipal control might 
be the most dangerous of monopolies, for it might eliminate 
competition and stifle individual effort. Yet in many ways 
municipal control of public utilities has been found profitable, 
as is evidenced by the satisfaction it has given and the rapidity 
and extent of its growth. There is an increasing tendency 
for cities to take charge of public utilities. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What general tendency in city control is shown by the 
increased medical care of citizens at the expense of the city? 

2. What forms of industry afifect all the people oi the city? 



Municipal Control 159 

3. Why is the city so deeply interested in its water supply? 

4. How do adequate transportation facilities bear on its 
health and prosperity? 

5. What are some of the causes of the sweatshop system? 

6. If a police system is corrupt, why is it more guilty than 
ordinary criminals? 

7. May municipal control become a monopoly? 

8. Why is a city justified in spending money for parks, 
municipal music, libraries, gymnasia, play grounds, and theatres? 

9. Name some factors that tend to make city people more 
united in life than country people? 

10. What are some advantages of municipal control? 

11. What are some of the disadvantages of public utilities? 

12. What are some of the forms of organized charity found 
in the city? What should be the purpose of such charity? 

13. What dangers are common to all forms of city gov- 
ernment ? 

14. Would it be fair to devise some form of tax for city 
dwellers who do not own property? 

15. Would it be advisable to appoint city officers by civil 
service ? 



PART V 
THE FAMILY 



CHAPTER XVI 



PARENTS 



Introduction, The family is the primary social unit. It 
preceded all other institutions and was necessary to them. It 
came before the State, the Church or the School. Society has 
its roots in the family. Most of our industries originated in 
the home and they left it only when they became highly spec- 
ialized. The school starts in the home where the children are 
being trained for citizenship. The home is a government 
where parents formulate the laws of a domestic republic. As an 
institution it has one great moral end and that is the good of 
all its members. 

There have been three historical factors that have contrib- 
uted to the growth of the conception of the family; the Roman, 
the German and the Church influence. The Roman ideal was 
patriarchal while the Germanic ideal was democratic. While 
both gave the husband great authority, in the latter there w^as 
a strong tendency to regard marriage as a union of two free 
wills rather than that the husband should be a dictator. The 
Church modified these conceptions first in two ways by mak- 
ing marriage sacred because Christ was born of a woman and 
then by teaching that celibacy was a higher state than mar- 
riage. Later there was a revolt against the view that the life 
of celibacy had any special virtue. 

Marriage. The Church always held marriage to be an act 
of deliberate choice and developed the conception of marriage 
as a union of two free wills. Marriage is one of the great 
events of life in which there is option as far as the parties to 
the contract are concerned. The highest form of marriage is 

163 



164 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

that where there is one wife. Hegel has shown that the com- 
plete union of husband and wife is the ''spiritual necessity on 
which monogamy rests." Marriage without love is only an 
alliance. There is another reason for the marriage of one man 
and one woman. Marriage may be viewed as a right of man 
and woman. If plural marriages are allowed then, by the na- 
ture of the case, some will be denied this right since there is 
about an equal number of men and women. Monogamy is 
favored by women because it gives them greater equality and 
self-realization. Whatever may be the natural causes which 
draw men and women together, such as attraction because of 
contrasting characteristics, it is evident an instinctive attach- 
ment of two parties is not sufficient to maintain a happy family 
life. There should be attraction through taste and common 
sympathy and these should be supplemented by a fixed purpose 
on the part of both parties to seek the common good. Where 
there is sacrifice for the common good the husband and wife 
lose individual differences and have their lives enriched gain- 
ing a breadth and sympathy they did not before possess. 

Parenthood greatly modifies the marriage relation. The 
circle of the family is enlarged and the common good has been 
given a new meaning. The tie which now binds the father 
and mother together is stronger than ever before because in 
their children they have an abiding common interest. 

Dangers to Family Life, There are certain dangers which 
imperil family life. Extreme individualism threatens the wel- 
fare of many homes. Before marriage many do not learn to 
adapt themselves to other people and are proud of the fact 
that they generally have their own way. After marriage they 
attempt the same tactics and either make others who are forced 
to surrender to them miserable or meet a resistance as decided 
as their own. Marriage demands co-operation, a giving up 
on points that are non-essential and yielding when the differ- 



Parents 165 

ences are more serious. The bond between husband and wife 
involves mutual surrender because of duties which otherwise 
cannot be discharged. 

In order that a man may succeed in the business world he 
must spend the greater part of his time at his work and while 
he may have a good heart and care for his wife and children 
he may be absent from the home so much of the time that his 
family is neglected. While its welfare may depend on his 
business success he should be careful not to allow it to grow 
away from him. 

It was not so long ago that the working classes lived in a 
way decidedly inferior to the well-to-do who were then few in 
number. Today most people seek the comforts of those who 
are better off than they. It means for them extravagance if 
they are successful in their endeavor. It is easy for the wife 
to dress herself and her children more expensively than she can 
afford, for the husband to indulge in luxuries beyond his in- 
come, and for both to live in a house not in proportion to their 
means. This can only lead to dissatisfaction in the long run. 

Odd as it may seem, parental love is ofttimes the cause of 
grief to parents. The children are not required to obey and 
rather than hurt their feelings the parents permit them to con- 
tinue disregarding their wishes. When they are grown, not 
having learned to obey at home, they do not know how to work 
for others and are not under control. A prominent warden 
of one of the penitentiaries said: ^'Most of our prisoners are 
mother's boys who were not taught to obey." 

Parents need more interests outside the home. This is 
especially true of the wife who is confined in the same place 
so much of the time. When people get away from the place 
where they have been for a long time it freshens their interest 
and they return to their homes with zest, to take up with joy 
the duties that have grown to be common-place. Parents are 



1 66 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

called upon to sacrifice for their children and they generally 
do so, but to carry that sacrifice to self-abnegation may be to 
deny them the happy, alert and interesting companions they so 
much need. 

Parenthood. Motherhood is the natural lot of every mar- 
ried woman. The greatest privilege ever given to any woman 
is that of rearing children. It makes the life of the parents 
far richer than before. In the child the parents live again; 
through the children their life work is carried forward and 
their ideals are realized. Parents desire their children to get 
the best things out of life and to develop themselves fully. 
Even those who may have been immoral want their children 
to be actuated by right motives, to refrain from evil, and to 
gain permanent success. Children are great purifying forces 
in society, calling out the best things in their parents. It is 
not possible to calculate the value of a family of good children 
to society. Those persons but serve their fellows who give to 
the coming generation worthy sons and daughters. Other 
duties may be well performed but if this is neglected when it 
is possible to accomplish it, the parents have been guilty of the 
gravest fault. Success in business or zeal in philanthropy or 
religion will not atone for neglect of the children in a home. 

Three Problems in Rearing Children, Parents face three 
grave problems in rearing children; to live as they ought, to 
find the environment that is best, and to find the school that 
is ideal. After years of association the children often strongly 
resemble the parents in ideals, in likes and dislikes. Children 
are wonderfully responsive to the suggestions given them by 
their parents, for with them all the forces of heredity as well 
as environment are working to fashion them in the likeness of 
their fathers and mothers. This matter of having others not 
only walk in their steps but also express their souls again is a 
fearful and yet happy responsibility, fearful only in the matter 



Parents 167 

of mistakes but most happy in the assurances that the parents 
shall live again in the generation succeeding their own. 

Next in importance to the influence of the parents are the 
things just outside the home, the neighbors, friends, institutions, 
and all the things the children are to see and deal with every 
day. Should the parents not be strong, these near influences 
of environment will be greater and the selection of a place for 
a home becomes addedly important. Parents must always be 
interested in the nature of their surroundings and ideal condi- 
tions are eagerly desired. 

Perhaps next in importance is to find the ideal school after 
the children have finished the courses accessible at home. That 
institution which properly relates character to religion, and cul- 
ture to eflRciency is of inestimable worth. Parents are often 
disappointed in the school life of their children, and the selec- 
tion of a desirable school is a diflScult task. 

Another difficult problem facing parents is to teach the child 
that the manner in which he conducts himself every day deter- 
mines what habits are formed and also creates his character. 
Habits and character are of so slow a growth that it makes it 
hard to instruct the child about the importance of these things. 

Large Families, Children serve other purposes than merely 
perpetuating the race. They enlarge our hearts ; make us more 
unselfish and full of kindly sympathies and affections; give us 
higher aims, and call out our powers to enterprise and exertion. 
The children are benefited by many brothers and sisters. The 
large family is most like the community life where men spend 
their days. In the large family there will be the weak and the 
strong, and habits of trust and kindness and sacrifice will be 
formed. There will be diversity of temper demanding patience 
and discretion. The older children may be restricted in car- 
ing for the younger and thus learn patience and sacrifice. Those 
who may appear forgotten will learn self-confidence and inde 



1 68 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

pendence. Parents* greatest contribution to society is well 
trained children. 

Advancements, There are advancements being made in fam- 
ily life in our day. Never has the home been so desirable and 
the relation of husband and w^ife so profitable to both as today. 
This change has come about primarily because women have 
demanded that they be treated as equals. This has led to their 
education and hence their advancement. Man fought for the 
ballot that we might enjoy political freedom but it is left to 
the motherhood of our land to use her education and power in 
protecting and developing her child. The coming days are to 
see healthier and happier children because mothers are going to 
use the power given them for the welfare of childhood, as man 
has used political power for commercial success and religious 
freedom. 

In Pennsylvania there is now a eugenics marriage law. The 
parties applying for a marriage license must swear they are not 
afflicted with any transmitable disease. This means we are 
reaching the place where diseased persons will not be permitted 
to marry and bring afflicted children into the world. The state 
has the right to adopt those measures that promote the welfare 
of all its members and it is rapidly coming to the place where 
it will no longer permit itself to be harmed by the marriage of 
diseased people. 

Divorce, Any condition which tends to weaken or destroy 
the family is a serious menace to our welfare. As long as the 
family remains intact, morality will have a chance to develop 
and all the basic principles which lie at the foundation of our 
national prosperity will be strengthened. To all right minded 
people, the rapid increase in the number of divorces is alarming. 
While divorce has been increasing over the civilized world, no- 
where has the rate been so high as in our own country. 

Yet nowhere is woman so loved and honored as in the 



Parents 169 

United States. In no other country is she so free from insults 
when traveling alone. In no other section of the globe is she 
given so high a position as mother, teacher, physician, or busi- 
ness woman. 

Altogether, there are at least forty-two causes given for which 
a divorce may be granted, though in some states it is left alto- 
gether to the judgment of the judge. Of the forty-two causes, 
about four-fifths of the divorces may be classified under five 
main heads: adultery, cruelty, desertion, drunkenness, and neg- 
lect to provide. In many cases statistics do not reveal the real 
causes. For example, husband and wife find they cannot live 
together happily, so they separate and after a time, one or the 
other obtains a divorce on the grounds of desertion. A desire to 
take the easiest way, or to avoid publicity, may be the motive 
for giving a reason other than the true one. 

Other causes of divorce are: flirting, premature marriages, 
lawyers, childless homes, lack of practical education, magazine 
stories, boarding houses, light housekeeping, lack of sympathy, 
gossip, nagging and extreme individualism. 

No doubt the wave of individualism has reached its crest and 
there will follow a decline of individualism and an advance of 
the interests of the family. For the sake of the children, if for 
no other reason, parents should learn to sink individual differ- 
ences and bear with each other^s infirmities. Every child has 
? right to a united home and a name free from scandal. No 
father is doing his duty to his child by simply providing clothes 
and food and shelter for him. There is demanded of the parent 
that he give the child social standing and a family name unblem- 
ished by divorce courts. No divorced person can ever be as 
morally upright as though he had not forgotten his promise, 
broken his marriage vow and failed to be true to the inherent 
obligations of parenthood. Divorce always means a severe 
moral wrench, yet there are times when it seems a necessity. 



I70 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

QUESTIONS 

1. Does a woman do right by herself who marries a man 
to reform him? 

2. What are some of the worries that attend family life 
when people live beyond their means? 

3. What is the effect of living in a hotel on the moral life 
of a family? 

4. To what extent are parents under obligation to sacrifice 
for their children? 

5. Does the obligation of a good example rest on parents? 

6. What relation exists between women in industry and 
increase of divorce? 

7. How may business cause a man to neglect his family? 

8. Why are diversions outside the home of special interest 
to the wife? 

9. Who should select the school which the children attend? 

10. Has the state the right to prevent the marriage of per- 
sons afflicted with certain diseases? 

1 1 . What reasons can you give for monogamy ? 

12. What benefits are derived from a social life provided 
for children at home? 

13. Why is self-denial necessary for happy married life? 

14. What is the effect of magazine stories in which divorced 
women figure as heroines? 

15. Why should the parents know where the children are 
over night? 

16. What blessings do children bring to their parents? 

17. What gives the state the right to have part in a mar- 
riage license? 

18. Why are common interests necessary for a happy mar- 
ried life? 

19. What is the greatest service parents can ofiEer to the 



Parents 171 

State? 

20. If optional with them, why should parents consider 
their surroundings? 

21. Name five good habits parents should teach young chil- 
dren? 

22. What are the advantages to the children of a large 
family? 

23. Why do many mothers want the ballot? 



CHAPTER XVII 



CHILDREN 



Introduction, By the ethics of childhood we mean, pri- 
marily, those moral principles which should govern the child, 
during the period of development, in determining his attitude 
and conduct toward his parents and toward society. A dis- 
cussion of what constitutes the moral problems of children 
should be founded on a study of the nature of the child. The 
late science of child study will help us here. 

The Family Central in Child Training, The family is the 
primary and permanent social group. All the natural affec- 
tion, immediate desires, social impulses, and spiritual aspirations 
take part in forming and perfecting it. The evil influences 
which disturb society and the beneficent ones which "bless it 
come largely from the home. The child is not a morally ma- 
ture being but is one yet to be developed and the parents, as 
those in closest contact with the child, are most responsible for 
his moral guidance. That he may receive such training they 
are obliged to see that his faculties are developed, or that he 
comes to possess ability and also to give this cultivated freedom 
a moral direction. 

Child Morality, (a) Difference in Perspective, In order 
that this development may be accomplished there is needed in- 
sight into the child's nature to see what a given act means to 
the child himself. He has his own moral ideals and standards 
because his experiences differ radically from those of adults. 
It is necessary for all who deal with children to understand 
and remember that what is small to us may be gigantic to 
them and what is vital to us may be a matter of indifference 

172 



Children 173 

to them. The motives and impulses and capacities which we 
account important in ourselves, are in the child^s nature in 
varying degrees sources of joy or suffering to him as well as 
to us. 

(b) Both Good and Bad, A child can often go straight 
to the heart of a moral problem and is frequently desperately 
in earnest. A lack of sufficient understanding of the child's 
moral nature has done much to hinder his development in the 
past. Some believe with a certain poet that **trailing clouds 
of glory do we come/' and that the child is morally good; while 
others hold that he is bad. The facts are nearer a middle 
ground that he is first non-moral, then both good and bad, and 
that he has the power of growing in either direction. 

Belief in the total depravity of childhood has ceased and 
while recognizing that it has faults, it is known that they are 
generally such as may be outgrown and that proper training 
will eliminate undesirable traits and confirm desirable ones. 

What are the actual moral standards of children? Because 
the child is a developing organism its standards of right change 
from period to period. With very young children morality is 
identical with custom. Then comes a crude adjustment of a few 
rights as between the child and those with whom he is most 
closely connected. Standards of fair play, of courage, of en- 
durance, and of keeping secrets, loyalty in the gang, giving 
and sharing, grow up without adult control as the rules of 
child society. 

{c) The Gang, A boy is a member of a gang and as such 
has his own moral code. ^J. Adams Puffer found in sixty-six 
gangs that eighteen had rules against squealing and telling 
tales, eight, about lying to a member of the gang, eight, about 
standing by one another in trouble and five about paying equal 



*The Boy and His Gang, p. 35. 



174 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

parts of the expenses or dividing up. The code of honor in a 
gang says: *'If you are struck, hit back and take whatever comes, 
fight for your rights and if whipped, give up.'* It is hard for 
a woman to understand that a boy may take pride in putting 
up the best fight possible. The finest quality developed by 
the gang is loyalty. The members stick together and have no 
use for a tattler. 

**^A11 great teachers and successful trainers of boys use the lever 
of loyalty in reaching and holding their boys. Note the words 
of Judge Lindsay with Harry. 'Judge! Judge! if you let 
me go, ril never get you into trouble again!' I had him. It 
was the voice of loyalty. I have tried to appeal to loyalty 
hundreds of times since, in our work with boys and it is al- 
most infallibly successful." 

The steady pressure of the gang life on the side of the social 
virtues is shown strikingly in the reasons given by boys for ex- 
cluding members from their gangs. Among twenty-one boys 
who had been expelled from their gangs, three were put out 
for fighting in bad causes, eleven for disloyalty, and only one 
each for all other reasons. The gang is the greatest institution 
there is for the cultivation of loyalty to others in a boy. 

In contact with adults, through school and family govern- 
ment and community conditions, morality of a different form 
than that found in child society develops. 

{d) Temperamental Variations. Temperamental varia- 
tions also affect conduct. It takes the child some years to learn 
how to discriminate between the world of experience and the 
world of dreams and imagination. The lies of small children 
are often not lies, for a child may employ deception in a spon- 
taneous way. While he may realize that he is exaggerating he 
often has no keen sense of the difference between his statement 



^The Boy and His Gang—Puffer, pp. 35, 156. 



Children 175 

and the truth. The child may be cruel, too, without knowing 
how another suffers, or because he wants to see something hap- 
pen. Likewise quarrels and fights have no such significance as 
in adult life. They express, often, only the impulse of the 
moment, or a desire to enforce the standards of child-society. 

Roughly speaking, we may say there are three groups of chil- 
dren ; those open to suggestion, the obstinate, and the deliberate. 
The impulsive need to be restrained and caused to give the reas- 
ons for their conclusions, the obstinate need to be shown why 
they are wrong, and the deliberate need the truth placed before 
them that they may be able to form fair judgments. Again, 
children may be classified as cheerful, as morose, and as placid 
or even tempered. In meeting moral trial, the last group may 
have a slight advantage. 

{e) Sense of Responsibility, Children often have a vivid 
sense of responsibility. A child of four years w^as given a small 
wheelbarrow. Each day he went to the post office and brought 
home the mail. His moral responsibility had been explained 
to him and he understood it. One day he lingered and his 
mother went for him. Seeing a letter for herself upon the top 
of the barrow she picked it up and opened it. Even when the 
letter had been replaced, the child refused to be comforted 
saying over and over, '^Mamma, you oughtn't to have done it.'' 
People along the way said, ''Where does he get his will?" But 
the child was only contending for a principle. His ethical sense 
was struggling into being. 

As the child grows older there are many duties which he 
owes to his home. The household is a joint interest of parents 
and children, a common life for all. Low wages or sickness 
often force the child to take part in carrying the burden of the 
family. Wherever possible, the boy or girl should be kept in 
school but there are circumstances where their help is necessary 
at home. Then the children as well as the parents have inter- 



1^6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

ests to sacrifice for the strengthening of the household. In 
almost all homes, a portion of the work falls to the children and 
can be done by them. 

Filial love is maintained by reverence and gratitude, and rev- 
erence finds expression in the open sincerity with which obedi- 
ence is yielded. No will should be broken, except it opposes 
the ends of education. For, when a child is forced to remain an 
automaton of his parents, he has no real morality. Children 
have a right to be convinced of the goodness or propriety of that 
which is commanded, that they may be able to yield voluntarily, 
and voluntary obedience is the result of the child^s own freedom. 
Once obedience has taken root it may be strengthened by free- 
dom. The child may surrender himself to the considerations 
and sentiments which heighten it and then only does obedience 
become a duty which children owe to their parents. It is the 
primary duty of children and develops first, since it is the root 
of all morality. Obedience on the part of the child gives direc- 
tion to the whole moral code which is to be constructed, hence 
it is very important. 

(/) Obedience, To what extent and how long does a 
child owe obedience? Now, how can the child world be of 
worth in itself, if the right of the child to think freely and 
develop individuality is ignored as is so often the case? One of 
the first things a child has a right to demand of his parents is 
preservation and that a proper care be taken to insure his wel- 
fare. Acording to our conception of a responsible being, free- 
dom belongs to welfare. Yet the cardinal virtue of the child is 
obedience. There are many things which he cannot understand 
and for which the parent must be responsible. It is the part of 
the parent to determine the point beyond which freedom ceases 
to co-exist with preservation. Heedfulness, affection and rever- 
ence are the grounds for a harmonized spiritual growth. While 
the child does defer to parental authority, his individuality con- 



Children 177 

stantly develops. He has the right to think for himself. Today 
he is corrected for stoning a cat, but in the near future he sees 
the evil effects of cruelty and refrains. He has gained in poise 
and independence and needs so much the less guidance and re- 
straint. 

To be fitted for independent activities there must be practice 
in them. Therefore, the child should be given a gradually in- 
creased freedom. As fast as a child becomes self-directing in a 
helpful way he has a right to a proportionate amount of free- 
dom. 

HowT^ long should a child obey? Obedience is required for 
the sake of education, but education is a means to an end. 
Therefore, w^hen the end is attained, the need of obedience 
ceases. This end is the development of the child's faculties for 
the promotion of his interests and those of society. When this 
end has been attained the parents or the state must decide. 
There is often great difficulty at the time of adolescence. The 
parents may make demands which the child as a free and a self- 
directing being knows to be wrong. It is a sad experience in the 
life of any child when he realizes that he must forsake a parent 
for the sake of virtue. But this is the exception, for most par- 
ents want their children to live for the best things whether or 
not they do so themselves. Children ought to be careful of 
asserting rights and claims as to duties of parents toward them. 
It is better to remain under parental control too long than not 
long enough. 

Distinctly ethical attitudes emerge out of unpurposed activi- 
ties which may be called non-ethical. The child world con- 
tains persons upon whom the child must react. Just as intel- 
ligence requires for its development the social treasure of lan- 
guage, so moral action is in the reaction of the child to the in- 
stitutions, customs, and ideals of the various persons and groups 
in his environment. 



i7§ An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

{g) Strong Feelings, A child has more intensity of inter- 
est in the present moment than the adult; he feels more keenly 
his joys and sorrows; he has greater spontaneity of action and 
expression ; he lives nearer to material things and responds more 
directly to the simplest things in nature and human life. His 
uncritical imagination and emotional life are stronger while his 
conscious reflection is slow; he is a bundle of impulses. 

It should be recognized that the child world is distinct from 
the adult world and that it has its own character and meaning. 
Childhood is not merely a preparation for the future, it is of 
worth in itself. There should be endeavor to make the child 
life significant as such, as well as to prepare him for the fu- 
ture. And that means that the child is most moral when he 
realizes his own nature and lives as a child. While children 
are being trained to recognize the value of adult standards of 
morality, it ought not to be forgotten that the child has a 
moral life to be realized as a child and that this is his funda- 
mental moral problem. Adult problems will come in adult 
life and the finest preparation the child can make for these 
problems will be to live a wholesome child life. In such life 
will be found the needed training for later years. 

The child does that which other people expect him to do. 
The instinct of imitation controls in the moral life. It is 
enough for him to recognize an act as customary. When the 
child asks, ^'Why should I do as others?*' he has made a great 
advance. And when his acts are self-determined, in the light 
of that which is for his own welfare and the good of society, 
he is most truly moral. But the foundation for the moral life 
is laid in the almost spontaneous conformity to custom, with 
its attending rewards and penalties, by which he comes to know 
that which is good. As the mind requires social treasures for 
its development, so the moral life requires reactions to institu- 
tions, customs, and ideals, that by expression the child may 



Children 179 

learn the difference between right and wrong. 

Moral Conceptions, (a) Unity of Life, To the parent 
it is given to make each period of the child's life significant, 
but when the child becomes a youth this duty is his own. Life 
should be full of meaning at each stage. 

Few things make more for general wretchedness than a life 
in which each phase stands apart, the individual following in 
each step of his experience a will-o-wisp of the moment's desire. 
If a man's life is to count with the world, with friends, and 
with his parents he must begin early to understand that the 
possibility of life at any point is the net resultant of all the 
actions and experiences that precede it. There can be no higher 
ethical duty than the makmg of life significant as it is spent, 
and preserving through it all a general unity of its parts. 
Young people should study to learn to substitute worthy ends 
of conduct for the push and pull of desire and to extend their 
sympathies to an ever-widening area of life, that they may 
grow to feel the failure and success of other lives as well as 
their own. 

(b) Self-Control, One of the most important virtues of man 
as a moral being is self-control. It is this which separates him 
from the brute. But the power of self-government is devel- 
oped only by exercise, and those who rule themselves in ma- 
turity must control themselves in youth. A vulgar and un- 
restrained youth means an ungoverned manhood; restrained 
and temperate youth, one that is controlled. 

Children are apt to be thoughtless of common obligations to 
parents. Too often food, clothing, and all other benefits are 
accepted as matters of course. Most men will struggle to keep 
their parents from want but not all feel the imperativeness of 
those constant attentions and small kindnesses which are their 
due. 

(c) Gratitude, The time for the expression of gratitude 



l8o An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

and love on the child's part, is all along the hard paths of toil and 
care and burden bearing. The debt of children to a true home 
can never be paid. It is the part of the children to obey, re- 
spect, aid and honor their parents. Nothing but good can ever 
come from a surrendered will in a true home. Thomas Hughes 
says, *'The more absolute the surrender of our will, the more 
perfect will be the strength of our manliness." Even when 
no longer under direct control it remains for the children to 
listen carefully and consider the advice of their parents; they 
should respect them. 

The child is a missionary to fallen humanity. The child re- 
acts on the adult. The constant care, and love and compan- 
ionship and the gift of time and thought; all are repaid un- 
consciously by the child. 

The Growth of the World. Death removes the old who, 
ofttimes forgetting the reason for their acts, live in stereotyped 
ways unmindful of the necessity for progress. Children take 
up anew the ancient problem of life and how to make it more 
significant. Youth goes back to the reasons for the present 
order and if there are no good reasons it demands a change. 
Youth calls society back to a rational basis for life. Thus 
progress is made possible, for the reasonable often differs from 
the conventional with which the old are satisfied. The world 
receives a perpetual birth through youth. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What modern science aids us in understanding the child's 
nature ? 

2. What is the fundamental virtue of the gang? 

3. Why are children not always severely criticized when 
they misrepresent? 

4. When is the child free so that the exercise of parental 
authority is not necessary? 



Children i8i 

5. What is meant by: we should see life in its unity? 

6. Does this conception aid us in morals? 

7. What can be done to help a boy who always sees what 
things are not, rather than what they are? 

8. Can you give circumstances under which it might be the 
duty of the child to remain out of school? 

9. Should a child be judged by the same moral standards 
as an adult? 

10. Should a small boy be permitted to fight under some 
circumstances ? 

11. How does obedience to parental authority benefit the 
child morally? 

12. Is it fair to ask the child to help with the work around 
the house? 

13. Give an illustration from child life showing keen moral 
insight. 

14. Give five virtues developed in the gang. 

15. Which child is most to blame for committing a fault, 
an impulsive child or a deliberate child? Why? 

16. In what stage of child life are games requiring co-oper- 
ation found? 

17. Why does youth make possible advances beyond the 
standards of the age? 

18. Is compulsory obedience ideal? 

19. What do we mean by free obedience to self-imposed 
law? 

20. Has a teacher a right to ask a child if one of his school 
mates has committed a wrong? 

21. If the child is both bad and good what gives you hope he 
may ever come to be a good man? 

22. What is the value of imitation to the child in construc- 
ting moral principles for himself? 



PART VI 
A SOCIAL CONTRAST 



CHAPTER XVIII 



THE CITY 



Cities Are Great Social Centers. Cities are the centers of 
interest in any country. Here the things which society esteems 
of worth are gathered. The best musicians, architects, minis- 
ters, lawyers, doctors, and builders are found in the cities. The 
latest clothes, the most modern and comfortable homes, the most 
excellent servants, the best of foods, the most finished actors, 
beautiful parks, public hospitals, perfectly appointed apartments, 
the richest of house furnishings and the finest products of cul- 
ture are here. The dull monotony of the farm and the small 
town gives way to the light and brilliance and gayety of num- 
erous places of amusement. Men immensely wealthy are to be 
met and business opportunities far beyond those found in rural 
districts are open to capable workers. Transportation makes 
possible rapid access to the office and the shop. Modern sanita- 
tion has made the city the most healthful place in the common- 
wealth. Here are the things of which men are proud, for which 
they have labored and which they hold of worth. The birth 
rate is low in the cities, yet they grow rapidly, for the most 
energetic, ambitious, and aggressive of the young people of our 
rural districts flock to our cities because they believe urban cen- 
ters offer larger opportunities for self-realization than the home 
communities. Criminals are also drawn to the cities, where 
licentiousness is unrebuked and violence is often under police 
protection. Those who desire to engage in crime and satisfy 
lust finds that the city offers greater opportunities than rural 
places. Thus the extremes of society are brought together in 
one place; those seeking the good, the beautiful and true, and 

185 



1 86 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

those desiring to be bound by no moral restraint and to know no 
law. Ordinarily, that which draws people to the city is the 
supposition that they will improve their condition by living 
there. 

The Difficulties of Moral Living in a City. In the country 
or small town, a man is known by all his neighbors. If he 
makes a mistake, the disapproval of the community rests upon 
him. In such places men desire to be known as moral and trust- 
worthy, and they are upheld by the knowledge which their fel- 
lows have of them and the desire they have to be well thought 
about. In the city, the individual is alone. Few care what 
happens to him and many live there without their neighbors pos- 
sessing any intimate knowledge of them. Many think it is 
immaterial whether they are known as strictly honest or not. 
They do not always deal with the same people, and if they can 
beat some one in a business transaction, they consider them- 
selves shrewd and successful. When the restraint of intimate 
knowledge on the part of one^s fellows is taken away many fall 
back to living wholly for themselves and engage in almost any 
practice by which they can secure money. It is not easy to find 
a worthy contractor who will build a house without being 
watched, not let his men slight their work, and demand a legiti- 
mate price for it. While competition leads to strife for suc- 
cess, the struggle is increased and carried out on a lower moral 
level than in rural communities where people are intimately 
acquainted. 

What is true of business holds also of the pleasures of the 
city. While there are entertainments whose artistic worth far 
surpasses any given in the small town, there are also many ques- 
tionable places of amusement that would shock the rural dwel- 
ler and his family. With few to take an interest in the city boy 
or girl, and with that interest not very keen, the young people 
often gravitate to public dance halls and vaudeville and gayety 



The City 187 

houses for pleasures. They may justify themselves, saying: 
**Nobody cares and what's the difference anyway!" 

Had they remained in a rural community or small town, pub- 
lic opinion would have been strong enough to have kept them 
from vulgar amusements and questionable practices. The boys 
and girls of the city are often unable to entertain company in 
their own homes, for the only home they possess may be a 
small room in some apartment or boarding house. Thrown 
together, without the restraining influence of brothers, sifters, 
parents and acquaintances, many drift into crime. 

The city gathers to itself a multitude of young people and 
then confronts them with moral problems which are new. It 
should be evident that the type of morality demanded by the 
city must differ from that of the country. It must be finer, for 
the youth of the city must do right because it is right rather 
than because there are enough of the neighbors about who will 
deter him from wrong. He must either rise to the moral de- 
mands of the city where the individual stands alone, or lose the 
virtue of the rural community which he might otherwise have 
retained. At home it was considered wrong to gamble but in 
the city he may bet on the races, the ball game, or the stock 
market, and few will take note of what he has done. He must 
not look for public opinion to uphold him. If he is to refrain 
from such practices, it must be because he regards his personal 
integrity above the apparent advantage that might be gained. 

To take another illustration, showing that a higher type of 
morality is required in the city than in the country. In the city 
the youth may attend low-class vaudeville where jokes of a 
questionable character are told and none may know of his pres- 
ence at such places. If he is to keep himself clean in thought 
and body, he must do the right without the moral restraint of a 
strong public opinion and of persons closely associated with 
him. Because of a lack of interest in other people, the home in 



1 88 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

the city comes to be its great moral influence and the strongest 
place where personal ties contribute to the virtues of its mem- 
bers. 

The City is Viewed as Superior to the Country. City peo- 
ple are viewed as superior to country dwellers. The city boy 
feels his superiority in a country community. The city girl is 
often regarded as a "lady.'* Country people wonder whether 
their city visitors will be annoyed by the entertainment they 
receive. Even the city bricklayer has a standing above that 
of the rural worker. The clerk in a great department store, 
though he receives a meager salary, is viewed as superior to the 
clerks in a village store. There is an aristocracy of the city, 
irrespective of the class to which its people belong. Success- 
ful and efficient persons in rural communities have many exhi- 
bitions on the part of city mediocrity of ways in which they 
feel their superiority. A club of city women visiting a small 
town in which a college was located furnished entertainment 
to its cultured inhabitants by their condescension as city folks. 
City dwellers assume an air of superiority because of the many 
excellencies of the place. They live in a community where there 
are prominent men, artists, and professional men, where the 
externals are often magnificent and attractive. The city is 
filled with these superior worths and its dwellers claim its 
values as their own, no matter what their social position. All 
levels of society in the city acquire significance largely as the 
neighbor's boy gets the measles — by contagion. 

The country imitates the city's educational ideals, business 
methods, fashions in clothing, architecture, speech, amusements, 
and artistic conceptions. Most of the things of worth origi- 
nate in the cities and are gradually diffused throughout the 
country. When the most skilled and prominent in all lines of 
activity gravitate to these centers, it is only natural that they 
should set the pace for the remainder of society. Theatrical 



The City 189 

troupes desire to be known as having started from New York. 
Most of the magazines are published there. New York's fi- 
nancial policy determined for a long while our business pros- 
perity. As culture becomes generally disseminated, it is in- 
creasingly difficult for one city to hold its position of supremacy. 
San Francisco, Kansas City, Chicago, Cleveland, and other of 
our great cities do not imitate New York in all points. Worthy 
discoveries are made in all these and in other places, and it is 
increasingly difficult for any city to remain prominent because 
efficient people are to be found in so many different parts of 
our country. 

City Dwellers Need a Cosmopolitan Mind, The city 
dweller needs a cosmopolitan mind. There should be a city 
mind, for the people of various nationalities are thrown to- 
gether and many of their interests are common. The moral 
condition of the city, cost of transportation, gas, electricity, 
pure water, wholesome, unadulterated food, clean tenements, 
good streets and low rents are all points of common interest. 
These are not Chinese, German, Polish or Irish problems. 
They are problems of all the people and all need an intelligent 
understanding of the common needs of the city. The public 
school system, and business and politics are bringing various 
peoples together because of a community of economic and moral 
interests. As long as the people fail to achieve a common mind, 
the city will not be able to solve its problems. Only when 
they come to think alike, when they possess the city mind, will 
they be able to dwell together with the greatest advantage to 
one another. 

Night schools for foreigners, social settlement workers and 
public charities are minor means of unifying the people. Not 
only is there a need that the citizens of a city should think to- 
gether, but there is a deeper need that they feel together. Social 
feeling is deeper than social thought. Civic pride, sympathy 



1 90 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

for different classes, and a common desire to promote the in- 
terests of all are necessary for the best city life. 

Strong Men in the City are Imitated by Many. The city 
may be viewed as a mighty suggestive force in which thousands 
imitate its leaders. As fast as men direct its affairs because 
of intellectual superiority, they will be imitated by many others. 
The leaders of a city's life should feel the responsibility placed 
on them because they will be imitated by the multitude and the 
common life acts as a great suggestive power on its members. 
^^'Suggestion gives a hint to a self-active and creative mind 
of its own native and original but yet unawakened powers. 
Imitation is the reaction upon suggestion, the sign that the hint 
has entered the soul and set it to the work of self-development.'' 
Once we have started with imitation, we may go on to self 
direction and self-development. 

Spencer s Conception, Spencer says, ^^'The ultimate man 
will be one whose private requirements coincide with public 
ones. He will be that manner of man who, in spontaneously 
fulfilling his own nature, incidentally performs the function of 
a social unit; and yet is only enabled to fulfill his ov^^n nature 
by al] others doing the like." This ultimate man of Spencei 
will be first produced in the city, for there men are forced by 
the closeness of their contact to think and feel alike and to 
act together for the benefit of one another. 

Already a majority of our population is in our cities and 
the cry '^back to the country" will not diminish their size. 
The welfare of our nation rests, in large measure, upon the 
success with which our cities solve their problems. The city 
is not necessarily bad. It is what its dwellers make it, and it 
may be the most beautiful, attractive and healthful place in 
the world. 



^Social Elements, Henderson, p. 336. 
^Social Statistics, Spencer, p. 261. 



The Cit^ 191 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where are the most cultured people generally found, and 
why ? 

2. Are there generally a few theatres In every city where a 
very low class of shows are given? 

3. How does virtue in city life bear on the final moral con- 
dition of our nation? 

4. Have moving pictures shown any real value to the work- 
ing classes of the city ? 

5. Why do the common people of a city put on airs as city 
folks in country villages and small towns? 

6. What are the disadvantages of regularly eating at a 
restaurant ? 

7. Where are the greatest criminals generally found, and 
why? 

8. Where are the finest horses found? 

9. What are the advantages of living in an apartment 
house ? 

10. What are the disadvantages of living in an apartment 
house ? 

11. In what ways do foreigners complicate the problems of 
the city ? 

12. Where are the best baseball teams, and why? 

13. Why does the country imitate the city? 

14. Why is it necessary for city dwellers to give more at- 
tention to public opinion than country dwellers. 

15. Why is it harder for a boy to be virtuous in the city 
than in the country? 

16. Which place requires the stronger man for survival, the 
city or the country? 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE FARM 



Introduction, The man who tills the soil occupies a position 
in the business and social world held by no other. He is at once 
capitalist and laborer, employer and employee. No Board of 
Directors demand of him a monthly report. He is not required 
to have a license, union card, or reference. He draws no reg- 
ular salary and is not called to his work by the sound of a 
whistle. His income is determined by his own skill and indus- 
try. 

Socially, the farmer and his family are in a peculiar position 
compared with the rest of society. Physical conditions and the 
nature of his occupation remove him from nearness and personal 
contact with his fellow men to a larger extent than in any 
other work. The separation from its neighbors causes the 
farmer's family to become a unit. In no other place do people 
feel so keenly the ties of home and loved ones. In the country, 
social conditions are freer than elsewhere. The old associations 
of home, the wide kinships, the ideal friendships and the abund- 
ant hospitality are here as nowhere else. The sharp distinctions 
separating the rich and the poor are hardly to be found. 

The Farmer as a Neighbor, Illness and Accident, Fences, 
Dogs, Emergencies, Roads, Most men wish to be known as 
good neighbors. Such a reputation raises one's social and busi- 
ness standing and is good policy. Besides, there are many occa- 
sions, such as accident or illness, when the help of a neighbor is 
necessary. Many men, who employ questionable business meth- 
ods, take no interest in church life, and are not thoughtful of 
their wives and children, desire to be known as good neighbors, 

192 



The Farm 193 

and are often so reckoned. 

Fences are the cause of many quarrels. Each man is expected 
to keep up his share of line fence. The fence which separates 
one farm from another is not always a good neighbor's fence. 
Flood gaps should be promptly repaired. A broken fence should 
be restored by the man whose stock has torn it down, whether 
it is his own fence or another's. Stock should not be allowed to 
wander. It should be kept at home. None should be allowed 
to stray along the roadside to the inconvenience of the public. 
Special enclosures might be erected for animals that habitually 
break down fences. 

It is an unneighborly act to keep a vicious dog and the owner 
of such an animal soon falls into disrepute. Such a dog is a 
special menace to small children. When he leaps the front 
fence and nips the heels of spirited colts that some passerby may 
be driving, serious injury may result from the runaway. The 
local trapper and hunter, with his pack of fox hounds, coon dogs 
and mongrel curs is a neighborhood pest. His animals go yelp- 
ing across fields, scaring colts and sheep, and perhaps making a 
nocturnal raid upon the flock. Most farmers think it is only 
fair to shoot these dogs if they get a chance. 

Good neighbors will assist each other in times of pressure and 
emergencies, such as harvesting, threshing, butchering, or deliv- 
ering stock at the railroad. They will loan needed tools and 
machinery. In the dry seasons, the water supply will be shared. 
When going to town errands are often gladly performed for 
others. 

Public sentiment condemns the farmer who leaves his roadside 
to grow up with w^eeds and brush. When a high hedge fence 
is along the drive-way, it makes passing difficult and the thorns 
are dangerous. Road dragging is a community obligation, and 
in many places public sentiment is strong enough almost to 
require it. The road tax should be worked promptly upon 



194 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

notice from the overseer, and if a road is not finished, work 
might be donated. When a bridge or culvert is washed out, all 
concerned might well work to replace it. 

Schools. The public school is one of the most powerful of 
all American institutions for public and personal welfare. As 
it becomes increasingly necessary for the farmer boy to use sci- 
entific methods that he may succeed, his parents should take a 
keener interest in education than they have before. The father 
should attend school meetings and the school district ought not 
to grudge an extra mill of tax when needed. The school year 
ought not to be less than eight months, and should be nine 
months when possible. Care should be shown in selecting the 
members of the school board. Nothing is more exasperating 
in school work than a narrow and ignorant man on the school 
board. The welfare of the students in the country schools is 
just as important as that of those more favored. The excellent 
teacher will be found where a good salary is paid and where 
there are comforts and conveniences. The practice of having 
the teacher act as janitor does not promote good service. Sev- 
enteen-year-old girls with a common school education and third 
grade certificates are commonly the best teachers that are secured. 
The temptation to keep the boys out of school is very great. 
There are so many places where their help is desirable that the 
practice may soon become habitual. The farmer should expect 
that agriculture should be taught in the school and, when pos- 
sible, he should take advantage of the Farmers' Institutes. 

Churches. The church is a large factor in the welfare of 
the community. Other things aside, a good church is a good 
business asset to a locality. It raises the moral tone, makes the 
neighborhood a better place in which to live, and adds dollars 
to the price of the land. Some, who are not members and do 
not attend, recognize this and contribute to the support of the 
church. There are hard problems connected with the rural 



The Farm 195 

congregation. The more efficient ministers gravitate to the 
centers of population and influence, yet the country presents 
great opportunities for service. Life is simple; social inter- 
course is free; the people are easy to approach and are not sep- 
arated by class distinctions. The most marked cause of ineffi- 
ciency is the large number of churches in a single community. 
The farmer generally attends service in a small town in which 
there may be from three to eight churches, all weak and pov- 
erty-stricken. The workers are divided and one man frequently 
holds four or five offices and carries the burden of a church. 
Lodges supply a social need and often crowd the church. Phil- 
anthropy that sends men into rural communities to explain 
church unity and reorganize groups into federated churches 
performs a service of worth. 

Government. In many small villages and in the country 
there is a loose and inadequate civil government. The local 
constable is supposed to do police duty, but he is little respected 
as he is generally a man of inferior character. The justice of 
the peace generally takes the initiative in law enforcement. 
Drunkenness may go unrebuked, and license laws are lax. A 
gang of roughs sometimes terrorizes a country region by creat- 
ing disorder in public meetings. They disturb the town after 
the citizens are in bed and carry on petty thievery. Better 
local officials and a greater interest in public morals might 
eliminate these minor violations of law. 

Business Relations. The business relations of the farmer are 
complex. Unlike the laborer or the clerk, he both produces and 
consumes, and also exchanges. Prices are fixed on either side 
of him. There have been a number of efforts made along the 
line of co-operative business, such as creameries and stores. 
These have generally failed because the isolated life of the 
farmer has prevented him from learning how to work with his 
fellows. Farmers have special business temptations. One of 



196 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

the worst of country commercial evils is the practice of long 
credit. Bills of long standing are carried at the country store. 
These are frequently a handicap to the rural merchant. Some 
prosperous farmers pay but once a year, not realizing that they 
are drawing interest on another's money. They also fall into a 
like habit along other lines. Carpenters, masons and painters 
who have worked on farm buildings must sometimes wait 
months for their pay. If the merchant complains, his customers 
may go to another store, and if the workmen express dissatis- 
faction, they may not be engaged again. There is the dairy 
with its poverbial temptation to dishonesty. Yet a more serious 
fault than the adulteration of the milk is the unhealthy condi- 
tion of the cows and the filthy and unsanitary dairy. The milk 
cow reaches the age of seven and the horse reaches the age of 
nine. After that they never grow older. One peculiar idea 
which some farmers hold is that when they sell a horse for a 
price, they should approximate the truth, but when an animal 
is traded, this obligation is no longer recognized as binding. In 
the latter case, the party concerned should be shrewd enough to 
ascertain the truth, and if he does not, it is his own fault. 

The Family, There are certain obligations which the farmer 
owes to his family. Some farmers are notoriously stingy with 
their families. The lot of the farmer's wife is often as hard 
as that of the factory worker. The large red barn, modern 
machinery and well housed stock too often accompany a small, 
dilapidated home, with no conveniences, in which the farmer's 
wife toils from morning till night, the year around. The 
furniture is frequently the poorest and the kitchen utensils of 
inferior quality. The home should be made as attractive and 
convenient as possible, and the wife is as entitled to help, when 
necessary, as is the husband. The lonesomeness and monotony 
of the farm life often leads to insanity. The mind has not 
been able to endure the strain and it has given way. 



The Farm 197 

The children are not to be considered a source of revenue, 
to be worked from early life, that a few dollars may be added 
to the bank account. They are entitled to an education and 
a pleasant, social time. If the farmer can afford it, he should 
keep good stock, so that his children may take pride in it. An 
up-to-date farm will hold many a boy at home and keep him 
contented when otherwise he would wander to the city to spend 
his life as a poor clerk or an unskilled laborer at low wages. 
Vacations, holidays, parties and visits should not be neglected. 

Hired Help, The problem of hired help is a serious one to 
the farmer. It has been estimated that about two-fifths of that 
which should be turned into the channels of consumption are 
now lost because of the lack of proper cultivating and harvest- 
ing. Many landlords would remain on the farm if sufficient 
help could be secured, but it seems almost impossible. The 
wages are good for unskilled labor, and social inequality is not 
felt as elsewhere. Yet about the last work to be taken up by 
laborers is farming, for they feel that a stigma attaches to any 
one who may be called a "hayseed." In addition, there is 
little social life, when compared with the town or city, and the 
hours of labor are often from daylight to dark. In case the 
tenant's house is run down, it is good business policy to repair 
it. Kindness and consideration toward the hired help will im- 
prove both the quality and quantity of their work. 

Questionable Characters, In the country each person is 
thoroughly known by his neighbors, and this means that, since 
they are sure to have an opinion about his conduct, he will 
want that opinion to be of the best. A person has more moral 
props to good living as a farmer than in any other place in so- 
ciety. This intimate knowledge which others have about him 
prompts the farmer to live up to their expectations. Because 
all members of a community are so vitally related, if one com- 
mits a fault, it may take a life time to live it down. Even 



198 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 



1 



then, such a person will always be viewed as a questionable 
character. The rough characters of a country district are gen- 
erally boys who, in their exuberance of life, commit minor 
faults. They in no way resemble the cold and calculating 
criminal of the city who is steeped in crimes and hardened in 
vice. The average of morality of our rural districts is higher 
than that in any other portion of the nation. 

Advancements, The advancements of farm life and social 
life in general create new obligations for rural people. The 
farmer has felt it necessary to have improved machinery to suc- 
ceed in his business. Certainly his wife, as well, has a right 
to modern conveniences and appliances. To deny the house- 
wife a telephone would impose unnecessary hardship. To be 
able to talk to one's neighbors is often profitable and makes 
one feel their nearness. 

The consolidated school is making possible an excellent com- 
mon school education for country children. By uniting four 
or five district schools, a well graded central one can be estab- 
lished, and specially trained teachers secured. The small chil- 
dren can be brought long distances by a carrier, hired for that 
purpose. Such a school becomes a real social center for the 
community. 

The federated church will be able to support an excellent 
minister. It will replace three or four struggling denomina- 
tions Vv^here there is room for only one church. Federation 
will make possible the union church, a comfortable living for 
one pastor, and a united religious life in place of scattered 
forces. There are many communities where these church fed- 
erations are now operating. Such a church would become an- 
other social center for the neighborhood. 

Advances in agricultural and animal husbandry increase the 
revenue if the farm is conducted in a scientific manner. If old 
methods are employed, competition will lessen the profits until 



The Farm 199 

only a bare living will be secured. To meet the change made 
by the progressive portion of our agricultural population, the 
conservative element will be forced to adopt novel ideas and to 
put itself in touch with agricultural schools and Farmers' In- 
stitutes. It will be only a question of time until special train- 
ing will be as necessary for the farmer as for any other skilled 
worker. It will not do to hold the farmer boy in the old ways 
and keep him from acquiring the information and skill neces- 
sary for success. 

QUESTIONS 

Secure from farmers answers to the following questions. 

1. Is a man guilty of a fault if his vicious dog disfigures a 
child? 

2. What obligation rests on a farmer whose stock has torn 
down a neighbor's fence? 

3. Should a farmer loan a set of harness to a neighbor? 

4. Does a farmer owe it to a neighbor to keep dowm the 
weeds on his side of the fence? 

5. Why is it unfair to grow a hedge fence by the road? 

6. Should a course in agriculture and animal husbandry be 
given in the country school? 

7. Is the farmer under any obligation to promote the con- 
solidated school? 

8. Are voters justified in placing an ignorant and stubborn 
man on the school board? 

9. Is it right to deprive a boy of an education so that he 
may help with the farm work? 

10. Is it right for the hired man to eat at the table with the 
rest of the family? 

11. Why is the country the easiest place in which to live a 



200 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

moral life? 

12. Is the farmer's wife entitled to modern conveniences for 
house work? 

13. Is the post man entitled to a place to feed his horse and 
eat his dinner? 

14. Why would a consolidated church be a more efficient 
social center than a number of churches? 

15. Why is there not more public sentiment in favor of a 
consolidated school? 

16. If the constable is of an inferior character, will he les- 
sen the respect of the children for law? 

17. Is it just to pay a grocery bill six months after it is due? 

18. Is it fair to deceive in a horse trade? 

19. Should forms of recreation be provided for the farmer's 
wife? 

20. Why do farmer's wives make up so large a per cent, of 
insane women? 

21. Should a man lend a binder to his neighbor? 

22. Is it fair to exchange work at threshing time? 

23. If five neighbors work together in harvest, should the 
order in which they revisit the farms remain the same? 

24. If a hog shows signs of cholera, is it right to sell the 
others before they show any sign of sickness? 



PART VII 
ABNORMAL CONDITIONS 



CHAPTER XX 



CHARITY 



Introduction, A young married couple lived in a cottage 
not far from the railroad track. They had been there but a 
few days when a tramp appeared at the back door asking for 
something to eat. Being of a generous disposition the bride 
gave him a lunch. In a day or two the experience was repeated. 
It was continued for several weeks. One day four tramps came 
to this seemingly never ending source of supply. When the last 
one, was told that he was the fourth one that day, he 
replied with a grin, "If I had known that I would not have 
come." The fact that he seemed so cheerful about it set the 
bride to thinking and wondering if it was necessary and right 
to respond to every appeal for aid. She soon found there were 
many such appeals. There was the blind man selling needles, 
the poor woman selling silver polish, the poor man who must 
go to the hospital, the church appeal, China flood sufferers, 
India famine sufferers, the family living in a tent with insuffi- 
cient food and clothing. Scarcely a w^eek passed by without an 
appeal for ''extra help." What should this young couple do? 

In time there would be their own home to build, their own 
family to feed and clothe and educate. In other words to what 
extent shall one ''sell all and give to the poor?" It is easy to 
understand that if every one were to sell there would be none 
to buy and so the law would defeat itself. 

Two Christian Principles Noted, Charity has always been 
one of the outstanding virtues of the Christian religion. In 
fact, the first oflicer appointed in the Apostolic Church was a 
deacon whose business it was to see that the widows were not 

203 



204 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

neglected in the daily ministration of food. 

The early Christians over-emphasized the giving of one's all 
to the poor, for they were taught that whoever did this was 
sure of an easy entrance into heaven, forgetting that Paul calls 
one who does not provide for his own household, ^^Vorse than 
an infidel." 

Here are two principles which if not contradictory are at 
least difficult to define as to their boundaries. Just how much 
should be set aside for providing for his own household and 
how much for charity is a question which puzzles many a man. 

Causes of Poverty, No one can escape the responsibility of 
caring in some measure for the weak. The practical applica- 
tion of the principle of evolution — the survival of the fit — 
naturally leads to the neglect of the weak. But while the 
strong and healthy do not need to live in a tenement or work 
in a sweatshop, the clothes they buy and the food they eat are 
often germ-laden because prepared for the market by ill-fed, 
sickly people in the congested portions of the city. While 
they have no temptation to steal, yet others, living under con- 
ditions which foster crime, become burglars, inebriates, murder- 
ers and a menace to the safety of everyone. Society is learn- 
ing more and more that no one lives to himself. Our modern 
complicated life is so delicately balanced a mechanism that, 
like the seismograph, a slight disturbance in any portion of so- 
ciety is at once felt. Hence the obligation is laid upon us to 
be philanthropists, who for the good of society will seek the 
causes of poverty and then try to remedy conditions. 

Probably the most potent causes of poverty are the unsanitary 
physical conditions and unwholesome social conditions in which 
thousands of working people are forced to live. It is difficult 
to picture the condition of the tenements with their dirty pas- 

^I Tim. 5; 8. 



Charity 205 

sage ways, ill-lighted and dark rooms, with almost no ventila- 
tion and defective sewerage. Such places are perfect breed- 
ing grounds for all kinds of disease. Sickness and low wages 
lead to poverty, and poverty often is a cause of crime. 

A general survey of the indigent shows them to be ignorant 
and shiftless, and many of them drunkards. Another cause of 
poverty is borrowing and being unable to repay. The unsuc- 
cessful gambler, too, is found among the poor and needy. 

Three Methods of Relief, Many methods have been em- 
ployed to relieve poverty and distress. These might be di- 
vided into three classes, — those used by the State, by charity 
organizations of various kinds, and by individuals. 

Under the first we have in many places State Boards of 
Charities which work under laws governing them. Homes for 
the disabled soldiers, 'Vho are wards of the government," the 
hospitals for idiots and insane, besides the houses of correction 
and reform schools are all provided by the state. 

Among the various methods employed by the state, the Ham- 
burg-Elberfeldt System is prominent. It was inaugurated 
about 1765 by Professor Busch. A general bureau was given 
charge of the charity work in the city of Hamburg. The cit\^ 
was divided into sections and superintendents were placed over 
each district. Work was secured for those who could not 
find it and those needing aid were taught ways of self support. 
It was made unlawful to give alms at the door. Hospitals 
for the sick were maintained and an industrial school was pro- 
vided for the children. A general system of caring for the 
needy was inaugurated which took into consideration the needs 
and the deserts of those who applied for aid. This plan was 
a great aid to the city. It put the paupers to work or caused 
them to leave, it cared for the sick and repressed begging, and 
gave industrial education to those unable to earn a living. 
Later the system was used at the small German town of El- 



2o6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

berfeldt, where it was modified and slightly improved. 

State charity has advantages over other forms of affording 
relief in that it is more regular. Those whom the State helps 
are not allowed to starve or go unaided over a long period of 
time. A few good dinners a year are better than none, but a 
more reasonable way is to care for the needy day by day. An- 
other advantage is the impersonal attitude it can take toward 
the applicant. At the same time this unbiased and impartial 
attitude is at fault, for one of the greatest needs of the human 
heart is sympathy, and no impersonal ^'It" can ever meet this 
demand. A serious objection to state charity as it operates to- 
day is the tendency it may have to foster poverty rather than 
correct it. It is so much less humiliating to apply to a State 
Board of Charity for aid than to individuals that the question 
arises as to whether or not a class of dependents is thereby 
created by the state aid. 

Scattered over our land are many organizations whose sole 
purpose is the relief of those in distress. These seem almost 
numberless when we think of them — the many church organi- 
zations of various denominations, the social settlements, the 
Salvation Army, Helping Hand Institutions, the prison asso- 
ciation work to aid discharged prisoners, the organizations which 
plan for excursions into the country or to the seaside for the 
children of the slums, besides those promoting playgrounds and 
building free libraries. 

The best form of giving is from person to person in which 
the personal touch is maintained. There are three forms of 
benevolence, — giving new and better incentives to a nobler life, 
giving thought as to the cause of poverty and its final remedy, 
and giving money. Too often the individual when appealed 
to for aid gives his money as the easiest way of getting rid of 
one begging and of easing his own conscience. Clearly this is 
only a half philanthropy, for no thought has been given as to 



Charity 207 

the worthiness of the appeal and no incentive imparted which 
will aid to better living. This method of giving money only, 
has been compared to giving drugs to a sick person, which for 
a time deaden the pain but do not cure the patient nor re- 
move the cause of disease and thus prevent its recurrence. 
What housewife would try to wipe up the water flowing from 
a faucet without first turning it off? Yet for ages the world 
has been giving to a never ending stream of beggars, and what 
can be done to free the country from this inundation of pov- 
erty? 

Promiscuous and thoughtless almsgiving results in more evil 
than good. The story is told of the first king of Bavaria 
which shows the demoralizing influence of careless giving. He 
gave away money with little thought as to whether those who 
received it were deserving. His manner of bestowing gifts 
caused him not only to use the money given him from the gen- 
eral treasury but also to use war funds, lottery funds, the 
sinking fund and to give orders upon the bankers. The pub- 
lic officials had to wait for their pay and the business of the 
government was retarded while the unworthy who received 
gifts lived in luxury. The Italians have a proverb: ''So good, 
he is good for nothing.^* 

Many beggars obtain money under false pretenses. They 
have some pitiful story which they relate and by arousing sym- 
pathy they hope to secure gifts. Not many are beggars from 
necessity. The beggars and tramps are the gypsies of America. 
They like the free life, the freedom from responsibility and 
the change in going from place to place. Although the senti- 
ment of the country at large is changing toward tramps and 
beggars, and there is not so much careless and thoughtless giv- 
ing, yet there is given more and more each year to various 
phases of charity. 

The Extent of Charity, For a number of years the notable 



2o8 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

gifts in our country have been about one hundred mil- 
lions of dollars annually. In addition to these large 
gifts by the very w^ealthy there has been given a 
like sum in small amounts each year. With the develop- 
ment of business which we may expect in the United States, 
the total of gifts will probably increase. But with all this giv- 
ing what has resulted? Are there fewer poor people? The 
main causes of poverty are inefficiency, drunkenness, shiftless- 
ness, ignorance, premature marriages, high cost of living and 
low wages paid factory and store employees, but most of all, the 
unsanitary and crowded tenements of our cities. It is to these 
conditions that the Twentieth century philanthropist should 
turn his attention. 

The object of charity should be its own extinction. Not 
many years ago a young man was asked to resign his position 
on a certain Charity Board for advocating such a principle. To- 
day this opinion is accepted unanimously, so that any one taking 
up philanthropy as a vocation has more to do than merely dis- 
burse money. 

Philanthropy as a Profession, The field covered is large and 
includes housing reform, child labor, prison reform, improve- 
ment of social conditions, beautification of cities, prevention of 
tuberculosis, welfare work in manufacturing plants and stores, 
employment of young girls, safety devices and guarding machin- 
ery, playgrounds, labor legislation, etc. With so varied a pro- 
gram to carry out, philanthropy has become a profession requir- 
ing experts to handle it. It is as highly specialized as the law 
or medicine. The day has passed when ^'any one can do charity 
work." In the first place, a specialist in philanthropy should be 
a keen business man in order to handle the large sums of money 
which are given. He should also be a sociologist that he may 
have a scientific grasp of his problems. He should be diplomatic 
and sympathetic that he may be able to deal with people. There 



Charity 209 

are a large number of good positions in expert philanthropy that 
are difficult to fill because there are so few competent persons 
trained in the new science of helping the poor. 

Overlapping of Work. One of the problems facing the new 
philanthropy is to provide some method by which the work of 
various organizations may be unified so that the great waste 
caused by overlapping may be avoided. By the unification of 
charity organizations the cost of maintaining offices would be 
greatly reduced. 

Modei'n Charity, The modern consideration of charity must 
note the causes of poverty and seek to remedy them; must see 
the relation existing between housing and disease and crime ; 
must take into consideration the fact that a living wage must 
provide something for growth and happiness as well as for the 
bare necessities of life; and it must realize fresh air is as neces- 
sary for life as food. Finally, it must have as its aim to make 
every child efficient. In other words, philanthropy is no longer 
satisfied with the doling out of bread to the poor, but it has 
taken as its slogan that every man, woman and child is entitled 
to live — to grow and develop — to work and to play. 

A mother living in a tenement appealed to a charity board 
for aid. It was found that she was making a living by sewing 
baby dresses for which she received forty cents a dozen. By 
hard, incessant labor she could finish six a day and thus earn 
twenty cents. On this she must feed and clothe herself and 
child, buy fuel and light, and pay rent. Should it not be known 
why this woman has to work for twenty cents a day? Is it 
her fault, her employers^ fault or due to economic conditions? 
Whatever the particular cause in this particular case may be, 
the burden of the blame lies upon the indifferent public. As 
long as no one cares, sweatshops will be filled to overflowing with 
downtrodden, inefficient workers, our tenements will still remain 
the breeding places of disease and crime, and many of the chil- 



:^iO An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

dren of our land will have their bodies and souls dwarfed by 
forced labor in mills and mines. These conditions are not neces- 
sary, and can be changed when the people say they must be 
altered. Public opinion can demand an investigation and cause 
to be made an honest attempt at reform. It has been said, **The 
hardest task, then, to which the New Philanthropist addresses 
himself is the problem of educating the educated.*' 

In Utah, there is a pension law which provides for the sup- 
port of widows who have children to rear and who are without 
funds. This makes possible a mother's care, which is of infi- 
nitely more value to the child than training in some state 
institution. The care of mothers and children is carried on in 
a systematic way in New York. When the state holds a family 
together, it has done a worthy service, for in this way it can 
produce for itself the best of citizens. Kansas City has a City 
Board of Public Welfare which aids its people in a great variety 
of ways. Prisoners may be cared for at its municipal farm; a 
rock quarry is operated where men can earn up to two dollars a 
day; a municipal pawn shop is conducted where a low rate of 
interest is charged; a free legal aid bureau is in operation and 
the unchaperoned at dance halls are investigated. This Board 
is aiding the semi-helpless in practical ways. When the char- 
ities of a city are reviewed by such a board those who are not 
justified in asking gifts are discredited because they cannot se- 
cure its approval. 

QUESTIONS 

When possible secure answers from those engaged in charity 
work. 

I. Would it do for all people to sell their goods and give 
them to the poor? 



Charity 2 1 1 

2. Is it desirable that no gifts be made? 

3. Are charity balls first-class means of raising money for 
charity ? 

4. Give at least four causes of poverty. 

5. Name at least four forms of charity on the part of the 
government. 

6. Do you approve of government charities? 

7. Should the state pension the poor who have been disabled 
in industry? 

8. Should the state pension poor widows that they may 
educate their children at home? 

9. Is extravagant expenditure of money a form of charity? 

10. What is the most important ideal found in modern 
philanthropy ? 

11. Is it charity to give a dinner party and invite a few 
who are not popular as guests? 

12. Is there need of individual charities? 

13. Give an illustration where a charity might be better 
managed if gifts were made to an organization. 

14. Why should charity workers be interested in economic 
conditions? 

15. Ought the state to protect its citizens from tramps? 

16. Why should charity workers be interested in industrial 
education ? 

17. Why should charity workers be interested in religion? 

18. Why does thoughtless giving have a harmful efifect? 

19. What advantage in a personal gift? 

20. Is it charity to associate with the unfortunate that they 
might be helped by personal contact ? 

21. Why are specialists needed in charity work? 

22. Why should charity workers be interested in places of 
amusement? 

23. Are we under obligation to give to professional beggars? 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE CRIMINAL 

When Persons Are Judged As Criminals. The faults com- 
mitted by criminals fall into two general classes : crimes against 
property and against persons. Penalties have grown up in con- 
nection with the abuse of another's property because of its worth 
to him. To have stolen a man's food, or bow and arrows, or 
clothing, may have meant to have left him handicapped and to 
have deprived society of his service. The penalty for the 
destruction of life is severe because of the worth of life to society 
and to the person himself. As far as this world is concerned, 
when life is destroyed its possibilities end. Every life has been 
largely the product of social forces, and society has a right to 
its service. Men guard the things that are of worth, and punish 
those who trangress the laws of correct behavior which they 
have formulated. Why should I not break my neighbor's win- 
dow glass? Why should I not use the vegetables from his 
garden? Why should I not burn down his barn as a means of 
amusement? Why should I not drive away his cattle? Why 
should I not harm his son in anger? Why should I not shoot 
him as I would wild game? Because his property is of worth 
to him, and with it he is of worth to society, and because a 
man's life is of value to himself and of great value to society. 
The criminal is a disturber of worthy social relations. 

If all real criminals were counted, our list of criminals might 
be greater numerically than it is at present. A hangman's rope 
or prison cell is the reward today of many who in the time of 
Ulysses or of Abraham might have been heroes and in places 
of power. We abhor carnage and murder, and yet hardly pro- 

212 



The Criminal 213 

test when workmen are mangled by unsafe machinery. Jean 
Val Jean was sent to the galleys for stealing a loaf of bread, but 
land-grabbers are called shrewd business men, and to water 
stock is a wise business trick. Many barons of the middle ages 
were brigands, and many honored sea captains were pirates. 
The society lion of a past age drank until he slipped under the 
table. The jovial, respected tavern keeper of that day would 
now be a victim of the criminal code. When laws alter, crim- 
inals are created. 

If we were to define the criminal class, we might say, ^''it 
consists of all those who from physical deformity, mental 
incapacity, or moral depravity are either unable or indisposed 
to regulate their lives in conformity with the laws which have 
been enacted for the welfare of the community in which they 
dwell." 

Types of Criminals. Professor Ferri suggests that there are 
five kinds of criminals : Criminal madmen, born criminals, crim- 
inals by contracted habits, occasional criminals, and criminals 
by passion. No class can be strictly isolated, and each has many 
representatives. 

Criminal Madmen, Many crimes are committed by those 
who are idiotic, epileptic, or insane. President McKinley was 
assassinated by an insane man who was no more responsible for 
his act than the sun for shining. 

Born Criminals, Born criminals are the victims of heredity 
or a corrupt social environment, who early show a tendency to 
commit crimes, or who seem naturally to break the law when 
young. Some are cruel, apparently having little sense of what 
pain means to others; others are cunning, stealing at every 
opportunity, while others are vain, lying and committing petty 
or even gross crimes. 



*The Science of Penology — H. M. Boies, pp. 17-18. 



214 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

Criminals by Habit, The habitual criminal may be closely 
related to the born criminal, in fact, may merge into the latter. 

Havelock Ellis, quoting M. Joly, tells how a woman with a 
tendency to crime may grow to become a thief. He describes 
two persons who learned to steal in the great shops of Paris. 
^'Trom a gallery one sees a woman — rich or well-to-do — 
who buys a certain number of objects and pays for them; but 
without asking permission she takes some little, almost insignifi- 
cant object — a little ribbon to fasten a parcel, a more commo- 
dious paper-bag. No one would say that she is stealing; no one 
would think of speaking to her or disturbing her. But she is 
observed and even watched, for one expects to see her again 
some time after, taking, as she walks along, say, a flower worth 
a few centimes. A little later she will appropriate an article of 
greater value, and henceforth she will take for the pleasure of 
taking. The inclination which in the beginning had in it noth- 
ing instinctive or fatal, will grow as all habits grow. Another 
time a woman who has no intention of stealing, but whose 
conscience is probably elastic, grows impatient at the delay in 
attending to her wants. It is let us suppose, a purse worth 
ninety-five centimes, and the shopman is busy with purchasers 
of more expensive objects. Suddenly the woman yields to a 
swift temptation; she does not wish to wait longer, but in- 
stead of replacing the purse on the counter she slips it into her 
pocket and turns on her heels without paying. 'From that 
moment,' says the inspector, 'she is lost; she will come back to 
steal, but she will steal intentionally and deliberately.* '' The 
above quotation suggests the way a habit of crime may be 
acquired. 

The Occasional Criminals. The occasional criminal is al- 
most a normal person. Such an offender commits a single 



^The Criminal — Ellis, pp. 19-20 from H. Joly Le Crime, 1888, p. 
269. 



The Criminal 215 

crime, which places him in the criminal class. A woman who 
would steal bread to feed her children might be put in this 
class. Again for minor offenses, such as stealing a ride on a 
train, or lying in such a way as to slander a person, one might 
be described as an occasional criminal. It is this class which 
so easily drifts into crime and becomes our habitual criminal. 

Criminals by Passion. When greatly wronged, it would be 
very easy for a man, under the stress of deep emotion, to harm 
another, to take justice into his own hands and thereby place 
himself in the class of criminals through passion. To such a 
person a crime is often a solitary event in his life. 

Causes of Crime, There are two causes of crime; the crim- 
inal himself and society. Where people grow up in a state 
which countenances vicious practices, or where the necessities 
of life are difficult to secure, and where, because of hereditary 
taint, children are not well born, society is producing criminals. 
A few of the causes of crime on the part of society can be 
mentioned, and first we place lax parental training. Mamma's 
darling who does not have to obey may add one to the criminal 
class. Henr}^ M. Boies, quoting Eugene Smith, says, "The 
causes of crime are legion. But if the question were asked 
what cause contributed more than any other to the formation 
of criminal character, I believe the students of crime and those 
who have had practical experience in dealing with criminals in 
prison would all unite with substantial unanimity in this 
answer: 'The inefficiency or absence of parental discipline in 
early life/ '' 

Where society fosters a saloon there is a source of crime. 
All who deal with prisoners recognize alcohol as a cause of 
crime. 

A legal system which permits the postponement of trials and 
the liberation of offenders against law when they have mone\' 
to fight, leads to a light regard of law and to the hope of free- 



21 6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

dom even when crime is committed. Lax enforcements of law 
causes an increase of crime. 

Lawyers, also, who know clients are guilty and use every fair 
and foul means to clear them are promoters of crime. 

Lack of education, poverty, sex, the lust for money, disre- 
gard of rightly constituted authority and excessive individual- 
ism might be mentioned as added causes to transgression of the 
law. It has been pointedly said, ^'every society has the crim- 
inals it deserves." 

On the other hand, the court has always recognized that the 
criminal is responsible for his deed. We share with society 
the responsibility for our acts. 

Physical and Mental Traits of Criminals, Certain physical 
characteristics indicate a tendency to crime. Striking variation 
in facial features from the normal is suggestive. What has 
been said of the face may hold of the rest of the body. Crim- 
inals often lack sensitiveness to pain and show extraordinary 
power to recover from hurts. Mentally, they may be charac- 
terized in two ways; as stupid, inaccurate and lacking in fore- 
thought, and as cunning, deceitful and delighting in lies. Many 
are excessively vain. Emotionally, they love excitement, hate 
the monotony of routine work and are swayed by the lower 
passions. They w\\\ not work. A prominent criminal repre- 
senting his class said he would rather die than labor. They 
are not irreligious. When questioned as to why they are pun- 
ished, most of them justify themselves for their acts. The 
criminal generally sees himself as righteous and society as at 
fault. They see the world as though it had run amuck. An 
educated criminal said to Mr. Davitt: ^*'The laws of society 
are framed for the purpose of securing the wealth of the world 
to power and calculation, thereby depriving the larger portion 



^The Criminal — Ellis, p. 241. 



The Criminal 217 

of mankind of its rights and chances. Why should they pun- 
ish me for taking by somewhat similar means from those who 
have taken more than they had a right to?" This same crim- 
inal said: ^'Thieving was an honorable pursuit." There are 
two factors which lead to crime; social forces which breed it, 
and a life developed along the line of criminal tendencies. 

Methods of Training Criminals, The old idea of punish- 
ment was that a penalty should be imposed for every crime 
committed. Its purpose was to inflict punishment that the of- 
fender might suffer in proportion to the harm he had done to 
others. With this conception in mind the law made a cata- 
logue of crimes, and the penalties that should be imposed for 
the crime when committed. This conception is now being dis- 
placed by another. The purpose of punishment is now cor- 
rective and protective. The state imprisons offenders so that 
they may not further harm society, and when it has them in 
charge it seeks to surround them with such influences as will 
develop safe citizens. This has led to a reorganization of our 
prison system along almost every line. 

We recognize that our physical condition has much to do 
with our state of mind, and that laziness breeds improper 
thoughts. When flabby muscles are made firm they act as a 
mental tonic. Hence, today it is common practice to give the 
prisoners regular exercise and steady employment at manual 
labor. This puts them in good bodily condition. At the 
same time they attend school and are taught the elements of 
knowledge. Study is also carried on in some trade in which 
they are interested, so that when set free from prison they have 
some way of making a living other than by crime. For the 
more advanced students cultural courses in literature are 
given. All who seek to re-create character cannot speak in too 
glowing terms of what religion is able to do for the life of the 
convict who accepts it. Criminals are people who are pri- 



2i8 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

marily deficient morally, and prison workers recognize that the 
greatest moral force that can be brought to bear on those in 
their charge is Christianity. 

In contrast with this humane treatment of prisoners we have 
the long dark story of prison conditions in the past, how men 
were treated as animals, tortured and starved and left to die 
in their own filth. One of the saddest stories in history is 
that of the prison life of the past. Its horrors cannot be ap- 
preciated by us. And such conditions exist in part in some of 
our prisons at the present time. 

The character of the warden of a prison is important in 
reformation work. A strong leader and one liked by the pris- 
oners and attendants is very desirable. A weak leader can re- 
tard every forward movement. 

The prison band and baseball team and library promote 
morality by providing legitimate recreation. 

Advancements, When society made distinction within the 
criminal class itself, it was bound to be only a matter of time 
until there would be differences in the treatment given them. 
We pointed out at some length in the beginning of the chapter 
the different types of criminals. These types at once suggest 
a variety of penalties. The criminal madman should be placed 
in an asylum and kept there until cured, or until death. Born 
criminals should be placed in an environment favorable to 
their correction. Those that are criminals through feeble- 
mindedness should have the care of specialists, and as much as 
possible should be done to develop them along the line of man- 
ual labor. Habitual criminals should receive the same special 
care, with a view to their cure. If a criminal of the last 
class is not cured, he should be restrained, even though the 
first offenses were minor ones. 

It is a question whether the occasional criminal should be 
imprisoned for the first offense. Prisons as now organized are 



The Criminal 219 

places where vice and crime are taught. To place such per- 
sons with the VICIOUS, whose lives have been criminal, is to 
tempt them strongly to become like their associates. Prominent 
prison officers deplore the fact that the jails are schools of 
crime, yet they acknowledge it is true. 

The Indeterminate Sentence. The indeterminate sentence 
fs coming into favor. This means that no fixed penalty is 
imposed, that the prisoner can reduce the time of restraint by 
good behavior, and that when competent persons judge it is 
safe to release him the prisoner may be paroled. The parole 
means that during good behavior he will not be molested, but 
in case of another crime, or failure to report at regular inter- 
vals, he will be returned to prison to serve his time. The 
indeterminate sentence has been tried with success at Elmira. 

Asylums for Drunkards, Habitual drunkenness is a disease, 
and the state should have the right to take charge of habitual 
drunkards and restrain them until cured. If it should become 
evident that there is no cure for some of them, it might be for 
the best interests of society to restrain such permanently. 

Society should have the right to restrain from marriage per- 
sons afflicted with such diseases as idiocy, insanity, scrofula, 
tuberculosis, leprosy, weak-mindedness, etc. . . . These 
diseases lead to lack of physical, mental and moral health and, 
hence, to crime. 

Simplification of Legal Procedure. There is need of such 
reform in our legal system as will make possible an immediate 
and just trial. When money will not set men free and when 
the administration of justice is swift and certain, there will be 
less cause for mob violence. 

Group Crimes. Because of changed social conditions a new 
class of criminals has grown up in our midst who are not yet 
recognized and placed in their proper class. The new order of 
crime is not directed by an individual against an individual, but 



220 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

by a corporation against society as a whole. We put in jail the 
thief who steals a sack of flour, but a corporation may steal 
coal fields, water rights, timber lands, and city franchises and 
may not be brought before the court for punishment. A man 
may neglect to put protective devices on his machinery and kill 
and maim hundreds, but if he, personally, cut ofiE the hand of 
a man, he would have to go to jail. He may neglect to put 
proper supports in a mine, and because of it people may die like 
rats in a trap, but if he shot a workman, he would probably 
hang. We do not always punish commercial crimes against a 
group by a group, for they often are not now recognized as 
crimes. But as a new sense of right and wrong grows up in 
connection with these apparently impersonal crimes, which are 
sins against society by corporations, the true enormity of such 
acts will become apparent, and adequate regulations will be 
made by law. 

QUESTIONS 

1. As most criminals justify themselves for their acts, does 
their attitude clear them of guilt? 

2. What sort of treatment should be given the criminally 
insane? 

3. What sort of treatment should be given the born crim- 
inal? 

4. What sort of treatment should be given the habitual 
criminal ? 

5. What should be done with the criminal who, when lib- 
erated, at once commits another crime? 

6. What idea now is taking the place of the conception that 
the penalty is a punishment for a fault committed? 

7. Society is perplexed in dealing with what great class of 
new crimes? i i 

8. Why is the indeterminate sentence of the criminal best? 



The Criminal 221 

9. Would it be right for the state to put habitual drunkards 
in asylums for inebriates until cured? 

10. Why should it be just to prohibit the marriage of weak- 
minded persons? 

11. If an insane person commits murder, should he be 
judged guilty of crime? 

12. If a person is raised in evil surroundings is he guilty if 
he commits a crime? 

13. Why is the first step in crime so important? 

14. Why can we say, '^criminals are created when new laws 
are made?'* 

15. Is a man who has been greatly wronged a criminal if 
he takes the law in his own hands? 

16. Why are many parents responsible for the fact that 
their children become criminals? 

1^7. Does the use of alcohol lead to crime? 

18. Why does the *^minimum wage" bear on the decrease of 
crime? ! v. '^-^ 

19. Why are the courts sometimes responsible for causing 
crimes ? 

20. Why can we say, **society has the criminals it deserves?'' 

21. Can a criminal place all the responsibility for his crime 
on society? 

22. Where would you class the head of a great corporation 
who gave thousands to charity and left his machinery without 
safety devices, so that many men were injured and killed? 

23. Where would you place the department store manager 
who paid girl clerks less than living wages and thereby forced 
them to lead immoral lives? 

24. If asked to testify before a court to a crime you have 
witnessed, you do not think you are doing wrong in telling the 
facts? Why then, do some consider it wrong to tell the school 
authorities the facts about a fault when requested by them? 



222 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

25. If you aid a criminal, are you an accessory to his crime? 

26. If you fail to prevent crime when possible, are you 
accessory to it ? 



CHAPTER XXII 



THE SALOON 



Growth of the Prohibition Movement, It is difficult for 
one generation to project itself into the atmosphere of the pre- 
ceding generation. It is still more difficult to appreciate the 
life of a century ago; and it is no wonder that there is a dis- 
tinct shock when one hears for the first time that in the early 
years of our national existence drinking was so common that at 
all conferences of ministers certain sums were set aside by the 
church at large to supply them with spirits. Certain it is that 
no wedding or funeral, baptism or ordination, business deal or 
party, was complete without the cup. A caller before leaving 
the house was asked to take a drink. To refuse a drink was 
almost an insult. Farmers furnished liquor for the men in the 
fields so they could work faster and stand the heat better. It 
was believed by all that whiskey would keep one w^arm in win- 
ter and cool in summer. It was a common saying: ''Strong 
liquor makes strong men." Every family had its store of liquor 
or bought it for daily use from the grocer. To drink together 
was a sign of friendship. This custom still prevails in Ger- 
many. It is but recently that the Kaiser issued an edict by 
which people were permitted to drink his health in water. Up 
to that time it was considered obligatory to drink the Kaiser's 
health in liquor at every gathering. 

At the close of the Revolutionary War the excess of drinking 
reached its climax. This may have been in part the result of 
habits formed by the soldiers during the war, and it was partly 
due to the effects of French skepticism. 

The first intimation we have of any remonstrance against the 

223 



224 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

universal custom of drinking as freely as one wished, was the 
publishing of a paper by Dr. Rush, of Philadelphia, entitled 
**An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits on the Human 
Body and Mind/' This was written in 1785. The article car- 
ried a great deal of weight, as Dr. Rush was a man of promi- 
nence, being one of the signers of the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. Notice that he confined his subject to ^'ardent spirits." 
As far as outward and tangible effects are concerned the paper 
seems to have accomplished nothing, but it certainly must have 
set people to thinking. Soon afterwards men began to ask 
others to sign pledges which included only abstinence from the 
stronger drinks. In 1808 the first temperance society was 
organized at Moreau, New York. The number of charter 
members was forty-seven. The pledge included abstinence 
from the use of ardent spirits except in case of sickness or at 
public dinners or at communion. 

There is an interesting fact to be noted in connection with 
the signing of pledges in the early history of the temperance 
movement. Attention has been drawn to the fact that at first 
people were urged to refrain from ''ardent spirits'* only. Later 
it was seen that this did not suffice to keep people from becom- 
ing drunkards — that the taste of a beverage containing only a 
small per cent, of alcohol led to a craving for the stronger 
drinks. So a further step was taken to pledge people to abstain 
from all intoxicating drinks. To distinguish the first class from 
the second the letter ''T'' was placed after those who took the 
''Total" pledge. So it came to be that one who did so did it 
T-totally, or became a T-totaller. Thus we have the word 
"teetotalism." 

Up to the time of the War of 181 2 the progress of temper- 
ance reform had largely been the work of individuals, but at 
this time the churches began to take a definite stand and lend 
the weight of their influence to the cause. Still the temper- 



The Saloon 225 

ance movement, as we know it, was merely incipient and such 
a thing as Prohibition was unknown. The beginning of pro- 
hibition was due to Neal Dow. 

Neal Dow was interested in a young man, a friend who 
was addicted to drink. He was able to secure a position for 
him conditioned on his keeping sober. The young man was 
obliged to pass a store where liquor was kept and he was un- 
able to resist the temptation to take a drink. Of course he 
soon lost his job. Mr. Dow, out of sympathy for his friend, 
went to the store keeper, stated the case and asked him, on 
account of the peculiar circumstances of the young man's posi- 
tion, if he would not cease to supply him with liquor. The 
dealer heard him quietly and then said that if Mr. Dow would 
mind his own business he would take care of his. Mr. Dow 
left the place vowing that the traffic in liquor should be driven 
out of his town. In this way the prohibition movement was 
started. 

The Internal Revenue Act, The most important action of 
our government in the history of the saloon was the passing of 
the Internal Revenue Act of 1862. By this act the United 
States government placed a tax not only upon every gallon of 
liquor manufactured, but also upon liquor and beer dealers of 
all kinds — brewers, distillers, rectifiers, wholesalers and saloon 
keepers, including groceries and drug stores where liquor was 
sold. The effect of levying a heavy Federal Tax on the 
liquor business was to cause a cessation of the promis- 
cuous selling of liquor and to concentrate the trade in saloons. 
The brewing industry was but in its infancy. Now it began 
to be the business of brewers to help the saloons draw trade. 
Gradually the saloon ceased to be a business run by an indi- 
vidual and became a branch of a great monopoly. It is said 
that brewers support financially about eighty per cent, of the 
saloons in our cities. Business is often conducted on the basis 



226 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

of having the demand for goods create the supply, but the 
breweries are not satisfied with supplying the demand. They are 
creating a demand for more liquor by forcing their trade. 
Their agents are busy hunting places in which to locate sa- 
loons. Wherever there is a foreign settlement there a saloon 
is established and a man of the same nationality is made the 
saloon keeper. The brewery secures the building and puts in 
the fixtures and attractions. All the local proprietor needs is 
a capital of two hundred dollars with which to purchase 
liquors and cigars. He receives a commission on the liquor 
sold. By this method the breweries have located more than 
three times as many saloons in many communities as would 
otherwise be there. 

The Amount of Liquor Consumed, So many figures are 
given as to the enormous extent of the liquor traffic that one 
is liable to be dulled by the repetition of them. Enough 
money is spent each year to build six Panama canals. The 
two billion dollars used for drink would solve for us about all 
our great social problems, such as poverty, education, and 
vv^holesome amusements. Where labor receives about one dol- 
lar out of every five dollars worth of boots, clothing, and 
furniture sold, for the same amount of liquor sold it receives 
only between five and twenty-five cents. The enormous sum 
spent upon liquor shows how deep is the desire in life for that 
which gives pleasure, even though the enjoyment be but tem- 
porary. 

The Saloon as a Social Center. The homes of many men 
lack special pleasures and pleasant forms of recreation, and 
when they return from work at which they have been on a 
strain they desire relaxation and some kind of amusement. 
Members of the family have not cultivated ways of entertain- 
ment at home and, because there is nothing there which espec- 
ially attracts them, they go to the saloons. There they find 



The Saloon 22y 

plenty of light, music, companions, games, and conversation. 
There are the latest reports from contests of sport. There 
each man is a good fellow. There every thing incites to a 
gratification of desires. Nowhere in the world is there such 
democracy as in a saloon. There is no respect of persons. 
All, rich and poor, meet on the same footing. 

The saloon is primarily a social institution. It has been 
called the poor man's club. This is a day of clubs. Men seek 
the association of their neighbors. The rich man has his club 
where he may relax and spend the evening. To the poor man 
who feels that he cannot pay for a club house, the saloon is 
open. But a question here arises: How can the saloonkeeper 
make money, and yet pay such a license, from the sale of 
drinks to the very man who cannot afford a club? There is 
something about eating and drinking together which binds men 
to one another. This is one of the strongholds which the 
saloon has, as it furnishes men an opportunity to gratify this 
social craving. It is because prohibitionists, now destroying 
the saloon, are also abolishing these social centers that those 
who frequent the saloon dislike all temperance workers. 

The Saloon and the Defeated, The saloon appeals to an- 
other class of people — the down and out. What a temptation 
to those who feel defeated and broken in spirit to take a glass 
and forget their troubles; to live happily for a few hours; to 
repeat the dram at more frequent intervals until the will is 
broken and the man lives continually under the influence of 
liquor. 

If some drug were imported from South America which 
would cause men to behave as though they are drunk, there 
would be a vigorous protest against its use, and its importation 
would probably be prohibited. Because drunkenness is com- 
mon in many places no outcry is raised against it. The Fed- 
eral government has taken action against the use of morphine 



228 An hiductive Study of Standards of Right 

and cocaine. Both are strong stimulants and are useful as 
medicines. But Federal action has not occurred, prohibiting 
the use of liquor except for medicinal purposes. 

Alcohol appeals to many men who have abnormal appetites. 
That is, there are people whose nervous system is so consti- 
tuted that mild stimulants do not seem to affect them. They 
long for something which will satisfy their craving. To such 
a class the saloon ministers. 

So much has been written on the harmful effects of alcohol 
upon the individual that it is proposed in this chapter to limit 
the discussion to the social evils of the saloon as an institution. 

That the use of alcohol weakens bodily strength, ofttimes 
destroys family life, unfits for citizenship, and leads to irre- 
ligion, is common knowledge. 

The Aim of the Prohibitionists, It is only the visionary who 
dreams that abolishing the saloons will cause at once a cessation 
of individual drinking. It may be a long time before every one 
has ceased to drink, but what prohibitionists are aiming to do 
is to take away the temptation of open saloons from the coming 
generation. As long as in many places it is impossible for boys 
and girls to be sent to town on a simple errand without passing 
from seven to eight saloons, and getting the odor from the 
open doors as they pass, and seeing groups of blear-eyed citizens 
staggering along or an occasional hiccoughing drunkard who 
laughs and talks to himself like a half-witted fool, so long will 
many youth become accustomed to the saloon and grow indiffer- 
ent to its real character. ''Let the old men go, but save the 
boys'* is the slogan of every temperance worker. The boys 
can be saved from drunkenness only by removing the cause. 
How proud we ought to be that in parts of our country, at least, 
there are grown up young men and women who can say, "I 
have never seen a drunken man in my life.*' 

The Attitude of the Saloon Toward Law and Politics, The 



The Saloon 229 

paying of a tax does not necessarily give extra privileges but the 
saloon by reason of its high license has assumed many privileges. 
It has been one of the assumed rights of the saloon to keep 
such laws as it chooses and to disregard others. 

The National Advocate, a liquor organ, says: ^"In our meet- 
ings the saloon men merely demand the right to defy any man 
who shall impose upon them any law that is against them. 
Such laws ought to be defied; they should be trampled in the 
dust; and if they cannot be revised, then we say it is time to 
become anarchists.** 

From the same paper, ''We agree with the narrow-minded 
people of the State of Ohio that the Sunday ordinance is a law, 
but, like the slave law, it should never have been made, for this 
glorious country is supposed to be one of freedom.*' 

These two quotations show the spirit in which many a saloon 
keeper carries on his business. He claims the right to do as he . 
pleases in spite of the laws of the country under whose protec- 
tion he is living. Could anything be more criminal or anar- 
chistic than this? 

The saloon claims the right to control politics by placing men 
in office who are favorable to its interests — not necessarily 
men who will support the government and who will see that the 
laws are obeyed. The subverting of justice and overthrowing 
of law and order are the national outcome of such corrupt prac- 
tices. 

It is a well-known fact that the use of liquor blunts a man's 
moral sense and lowers his sense of honor so that he becomes an 
easy victim of bribery. The saloon interests exploit this weak- 
ness to gain votes. It is a common custom for them to hire men 
w^ho will register at three or four different polling places in the 
same city under assumed names. Tramps, thugs, gamblers, and 



^The Saloon Problem and Social Reform — Barker, p. 62. 



2^0 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

criminals of all classes become the tools of this great monopoly. 

The Saloon and Criminals, The saloon gathers around itself 
as a center many criminals, gamblers, and immoral persons. 
Those who have charge of prisoners realize that alcohol is the 
most conspicuous cause of crime. Investigation of the prisoners 
in any institution w^ill show that almost all use liquor, and 
many suffer from delirium tremens. The police records of a 
city will show that almost all crimes are the results of intem- 
perance. The extensive police system of the city is used almost 
exclusively in watching and caring for men, women, and chil- 
dren addicted to the drink habit. 

While a town may gain some revenue from licensing saloons, 
their presence also causes it to incur added expense. 

There has grow^n up a strong sentiment in the South against 
the use of liquor. This has been due in part to the fact that the 
use of liquor has incited the negroes to commit crimes which 
otherwise would not have occurred. The people of the South 
realize that liquor must be kept from the negroes if crimes are 
to decrease, and riot and bloodshed are to be prevented. 

The decorations in a great many saloons are such as encour- 
age immorality, and their influence upon those who frequent 
such places is often very demoralizing. 

Reform Organizations and Measures. The several agencies 
especially forceful in overcoming the power of the saloon are 
( I ) the well-known V/. C. T. U. which, by arousing public 
sentiment and by introducing the study of the effects of alcohol ' 
on the body into our public schools, has done wonders toward 
the overthrow of the liquor traffic; (2) the Anti -Saloon League 
which has sought to unite men of all faiths and politics in elect- 
ing to public office men who would see that the laws were 
obeyed particularly those in reference to the saloon; (3) legis- 
lation, either national, state, or local. Many favor local option 
on account of its greater pliability and because, being localized, 



The Saloon 231 

it IS more democratic, each section deciding its own policy. State 
prohibition has been greatly handicapped by lack of Federal 
support but the passage of the Webb Bill in 19 13 makes it a 
crime to ship liquor into a ''dry*' state. The forces working in 
behalf of prohibition are now seeking to get the Federal govern- 
ment to prohibit the use of liquor. There is a strong sentiment 
in Congress in favor of national prohibition. There has been 
considerable use of liquor in dry territory. Considerable has 
been said about its use in Kansas. The following clipping from 
the Kansas City Star voices the sentiment of many regarding 
the use of liquor in dry territory : 

''Yes, a man can get whiskey and get drunk in Kansas if he's 
bound to. It may be true that some m.en who are bound to 
will drink more out of a bottle than they would over a bar. 
But, you see, when a man reaches the stage where he is bound 
to have whiskey or bust, you can't do much for him anyway. 
And if you ask that man he'll probably tell you that he got his 
whiskey habit from visiting saloons for sociability. It's the 
boys we are thinking of. We believe a normal boy isn't very 
apt to get a whiskey habit out of a bootlegger's bottle. Nine 
times out of ten, if he gets the habit at all, it will be by drop- 
ping into a saloon with his friends for a social glass." 

Many people believe that the only way by which the use of 
liquor may be finally stopped is through national prohibition. 

The Y. M. C. A. has done a great work among young men 
in providing a healthy, clean, social life, and a place to spend 
their evenings where liquor and gambling are not known. 

But the Y. M. C. A. appeals more particularly to the clerical 
class and railroad men and these two classes do not by any 
means include all who need some substitute for the saloon. 
Coffee houses, reading rooms and bowling alleys have partly 
solved the problem but are deplorably few in number by com- 
parison, and close much earlier than the saloons. It will always 



232 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

be difficult to fight the saloons by substitutes for any substitute 
lacks the allurements of evil which the saloon has. This was 
shown in the failure of the Subway Tavern, a clean saloon, 
containing none of the objectionable features mentioned in this 
chapter, which was opened by Bishop Potter and other notable 
men in New York. The Tavern lasted only thirteen months 
at the end of which time it was forced to close its doors, which 
were subsequently re-opened by a ^'regular" saloon keeper. 

The European war has brought the nations engaged in this 
gigantic struggle to the conclusion that the use of alcohol hin- 
ders their fighting efficiency. The leaders in all these countries 
are strongly in favor of the discontinuance of the use of alcohol, 
and Russia and France have prohibited its use. One of the 
marked blessings resulting from this conflict is the world-wide 
sentiment which has developed against the use of liquor. 

Business men are now discriminating against employees who 
use alcohol. An encouraging sign of the advance made In the 
temperance movement is that large moneyed interests are realiz- 
ing the economic waste which arises from the liquor habits of 
their employees. As a result about ninety per cent, of railways, 
seventy-nine per cent, of manufacturers, eighty-eight per cent, of 
trades, and seventy-two per cent, of agriculturists discriminate 
against employees addicted to drink. 

In our cities there is a crying need for more public conveni- 
ences such as rest rooms, toilet rooms and public drinking foun- 
tains, and places where a man may eat his luncheon at the noon 
hour without going to a saloon to keep warm in winter and cool 
in summer. It is said that in one city the establishment of a 
public fountain closed two saloons. Recently a large factory in 
the West decided on economic grounds to furnish a room where 
its employees could eat their lunch and obtain a cup of coflEee 
free. As a result the four saloons located, one at each of the 
four gates to the factory, were forced to close. Another 



The Saloon 233 

factory opened a small building where there was an ice chest 
and where ginger ale and similar drinks could be had by placing 
three cents in the slot. This also resulted in the closing of a 
nearby saloon. 

A great foe to the open saloon is the wise mother who by 
making the home a happy club house for her son has provided 
the most efficient substitute for the saloon. In many places the 
only social life outside the home is the saloon. 

QUESTIONS 

Note: — Secure answers to the difficult questions in the fol- 
lowing list and read them in class. 

1. Can a corporation afford to put a fine machine in the 
care of a man who drinks? 

2. Has society always been violently opposed to the saloon? 

3. Do those who advocate prohibition seek to cure the ha- 
bitual drunkards? 

4. What are they attempting to do through prohibition ? 

5. What is the general character of the pictures found in 
the saloon? 

6. Would a young woman show good judgment to marry 
a man who was a moderate, yet not an habitual drinker? 

7. About what portion of the criminal class give drink as 
the cause of their own down fall? 

8. What is the general attitude of the saloon toward the 
laws which govern their operation? 

9. Why have saloons gone into politics? 

10. What are some of the substitutes that are taking the 
place of the saloon? 

11. What women have gained prominence through the W. 
C T. U? 



234 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

12. What IS shown about the character of the saloon by 
the fact that it serves as a center for criminals in our large 
cities ? 

13. What men are prominent in the Anti-saloon League? 

14. What is the attitude of railroads toward men who use 
liquor? 

15. What do the physiologies say concerning the efifects of 
alcohol on the body? 

16. What do they say about its effect on the mental and 
moral powers of people? 

17. Is there need of public drinking fountains in our cities? 

18. Is the government justified in taxing liquors for reve- 
nues ? 

19. What is the attitude of the breweries toward the num- 
ber of the saloons? 

20. What is the attitude of the Y. M. C. A. toward the 
use of liquors? 

21. Is it right for a man having a family and receiving 
an average salary to spend a large portion of his earnings on 
drink? 

22. Would you care whether an engineer was slightly 
under the influence of liquor? 

23. Has the saloon value as a social center for men? 
Why? 

24. Is it a small matter whether a boy takes his first glass 
of liquor just to be a good fellow? 

25. If a man desires to do so why should he not throw 
away his life in drinking? 

26. Why make a saloon pay high license and not a grocery 
store ? 

27. Why do unsuccessful people gather at the saloon? 



PART VIII 
PSYCHOLOGY 



CHAPTER XXIII 



MENTAL HYGIENE 



When we speak of health, we generally think of the body, 
but it is just as true that the mind may be weak or strong, 
efficient or inefficient. As there are a few definite laws of 
bodily health, so conformity to a limited number of the laws 
of thought gives intellectual health. 

Perception, A contractor in building a house is careful to 
lay a good foundation. With a solid support he can advance 
the work. In building sky scrapers, the base is put down two 
or three stories under ground. The foundations of the mental 
life are the things seen, heard, felt and touched. Helen Keller 
was backward in acquiring an education because she could se- 
cure knowledge of things through only one of the senses, that of 
touch. There is a consciousness of certainty and familiarity 
which comes to the individual who has reveled in sensing 
things. Those who have not done so in their early years feel 
the world somewhat strange and unreal; they are always more 
or less suspended in their thinking. To possess mental health, 
a person should gain as many different experiences as possible 
through the senses — see things, handle things, hear things, and 
taste things. Out of this close contact there will come a sense 
of ownership. This will be your world, not the world. Warm 
water in a creek will be a good place in which to swim ; a 
dead tree will be good fire-wood ; a plow will mean the moist 
soil that turns from it; wheat will mean a harvest, a mill or 
baking; a base ball bat will be something that cracks against 
a ball; and a hammer will be a tool that sinks nails into 
wood. We need to know the use of common things. A girl 

237 



238 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

who never had her fingers in flour, making bread, does not 
know dough. The foundation of a healthy mental life is a 
knowledge of things and their uses. 

Attention, Most of us know what it is to have an alarm 
clock go off, then surrender ourselves to a half-wakefulness. 
We are dozing, and attention is not very apparent. Should 
we look at the clock and see it is only thirty minutes until 
office time, the time element would stand out clearly and 
vividly to the exclusion of other things and we would be pay- 
ing attention. This concentration of thought means a great 
deal to us. 

A dog's world may run through his mind like the films of 
a moving picture. It may generally be directed by the whole 
outside world, but we cannot afford to notice everything and 
squander our time on details. We have found it of great profit 
to note one thing after another, or at least a very few things at 
a time. Our eye is on the ball when it leaves the bat and 
most of the players are forgotten. We get the fine points of 
the game by being able to disregard all else for the moment. 
That insurance man who tries to promote his business and 
ponders politics and poultry at the same time, will accomplish 
little. A fine art of forgetting most things and attending to 
a few things enables us to forge ahead. 

The singing of familiar songs gives us pleasure. But when 
an artist renders the same music, a thousand hidden and subtle 
beauties come out, for, through her interpretation, attention is 
making posible a great variety of discriminations. If we have 
no interest in athletics, an eleven-foot pole vault will not be 
noticed, but if our interest is keen, we shall pick it out at once. 
The business man interested in real estate will appreciate bar- 
gains, while those less concerned will not note them. The suc- 
cessful merchant attends to what people want and supplies it. 
The unsuccessful business man fails in careful discriminations 



Mental Hygiene 239 

because he has not paid attention. 

Some people think that concentration means to look wisely 
at a book and repeat over and over: ''The Declaration of In- 
dependence v^as signed July 4th, 1776/^ By concentration, 
they mean drill. Concentration means working hard and 
keeping within bounds. When a football player dodges all over 
a field to escape his opponents, or a history student uses July 
4th as a point of departure, relating the events that preceded 
it and followed it, there is concentration. It is the art of think- 
ing rapidly inside one field. When ducks are shot there is a 
chance with each of the small shot used. Many ideas bearing 
on a subject and related will probably lead to the conclusion 
desired. Concentration is like dancing — there is variety in 
unity. Variety gives interest to a subject and unity enables 
us to reach a conclusion. 

If there is a relating of old and new ideas there will be a 
growth in thought. Successful thinkers concentrate, that is, 
they reason about a problem, they look at it in many ways 
that they may be able to see it in the right way. They are 
not mentally lazy. 

Habit, The difference between a carpenter and an amateur 
driving a nail is just this, — the carpenter has repeated the act 
so many times that it is easy. The same is true of our thoughts. 
It is quite a task when a child starts out to remember three and 
four are seven, but he keeps at it until it is easy for him. He 
forms a habit of thinking. A good habit makes work easy and 
gives time to think about something else. When a child starts 
to write, all he can consider is the form of the letters; but later 
he can think of what he wishes to say and the letters take care 
of themselves. If the habit of writing is not well formed, it 
interferes with his thoughts. When we recall that ninety-five 
per cent, of our acts are habitual, we can see the large part that 
habit plays in life. Our multiplication table should be an habit- 



240 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

ual way we have of dealing with things. The tipping of our 
hats, our manner of speech, and methods of work should be 
nearly automatic. The successful physician notices many 
diseases immediately because he has certain habits of observa- 
tion. The expert telegrapher is such because of fixed ways of 
thinking and acting. Let us hand over to habit as many of the 
activities of life as possible, that we may be free to deal with 
new problems. 

There are certain principles that aid greatly in forming hab- 
its. The person who wishes to acquire a new habit should think 
clearly what he is going to do, and repeat the action which he 
desires to become habitual. If he is trying to pronounce a word 
correctly, let him think of its correct sound and say it over and 
over. It will become easier and easier until he does not notice 
it. If a person desires to break habits of incorrect speech, he 
should think clearly of the new phrases which he wishes to use, 
and repeat them without interruption. Then the new habit 
will take the place of the old. Suppose he is required to commit 
the Preamble to the Constitution and he knows it incorrectly. 
First let him get the correct form clearly in mind, then repeat 
it thoughtfully and shortly he will have it as it should be. Two 
things are important in habit formation — clear thinking, and 
repetition without failures. If one's thought is not clear, his 
habits will be slovenly. Good mental habits make it possible to 
respond quickly and successfully when decision is necessary. 

Memory, A politician who cannot remember names is hand- 
icapped; a banker who cannot hold credits in mind is ineffi- 
cient ; and a merchant who cannot recall prices will fail. They 
need to memorize. Persons often recall events that happened 
about the same time or in the same place or were recent, or 
vivid, or repeated; but the best way to cultivate the memory 
is for them to think about the problem before them until they 
understand it. It is hard to commit a theorem in geometry, but 



Mental Hygiene 241 

if what it means is understood, it can be recalled in substance. 
The definition of a triangle can be forgotten but if what is 
meant by the definition is clear, it can be given in substance 
later. There is no royal road to a good memory. Memory de- 
vices are not a permanent help. Those who think, remember. 
Think at the time information is obtained and at the time it 
is wanted again. Complete attention to each task as it comes 
and close attention at the time of attempted recollection will 
probably do more than anything else to produce a good mem- 
ory. This is because that which is attended to is related to 
other things, and vividly impresses the mind. When it is 
wanted again it is easily recalled because it has left a deep 
impression and there are paths which lead up to it. The pupil 
who looks out of the window, or at the blackboard and the 
scholars, and attempts to study at the same time, probably can- 
not remember the lesson. A lot of material has been woven 
into his thought apart from the study and when he tries to recall 
it, these unncessary thoughts come up, because he has built 
them into his lesson. Then he says: ''My memory is weak," 
when, in fact, his habits of thinking are poor. 

People think about the things in which they are interested. 
This is why the sport remembers the statistics of athletics; the 
minister, his sermon; and the druggist, the dry Latin names. 
Interest leads to thought, and these together make a good mem- 
ory. There are some minds that are like fly-paper, — all that 
touches them sticks. But these prodigies of memory are rare, 
and for most people a good memory is possible only by conform- 
ity to the principles that have been suggested. 

Thinking. Diogenes walked about with a lighted lantern, 
and when asked what he was doing, responded that he was hunt- 
ing for an honest man. He could as well have said that he 
was searching for a thinker. In reflection all our resources are 
used in trying to solve new problems. Leaders reason and the 



24-2 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

mass of men follow. A good politician thinks, a good preacher 
thinks, a good contractor thinks. The difference between the 
man whose judgment is good and the one whose opinion is 
worthless is, one thinks and the other does not. There is a 
saying, '^He will go to the heart of the matter,'' meaning there- 
by that the matter will have thoughtful consideration. The 
other conventional statement that ^'his word is final," means he 
has taken such thought that his conclusion is the best that can 
be reached. Thinkers solve new problems, and since society 
faces many new ones, thinkers are invaluable. Great corpor- 
ations are searching among their employees for men who are 
thinking; they are discovering them and recognizing their 
merit. Whenever a man is found who thinks, he is wanted. 
Watt thought the steam engine; Edison thought the moving 
picture, the talking machine and the electric light; our fore- 
fathers thought the Declaration of Independence and the Con- 
stitution of the United States; Luther thought the Reforma- 
tion. Men of clear and novel ideas of worth rule the world. 

Open-Mindedness, Because knowledge is not something 
discovered once for all, fixed and unchangeable, it behooves us 
to be open-minded. A watchman would not let a fire company 
in to put out a fire until they had battered down the door. 
When asked the reason, he said his orders were that no one 
should be admitted. He was a sample of obstinacy and the 
harm that may come from a lack of thought. 

The progress made in all the sciences shows that old truths 
must be viewed in new ways. A new terminology is needed for 
these new situations that arise. The word *^trust" has a new 
meaning because of corporations controlling world-wide inter- 
ests. Charity is no longer a matter of giving alms to the poor. 
Each field of knowledge grows and modifies itself and demands 
a willingness to learn. Words are the symbols of concepts and 
they need to be modified for thoughts are changing. 



Mental Hygiene 243 

There are worthy convictions and stubborn conceits. Many 
of the troubles of life are due to the latter. Parents and chil- 
dren often divide on matters that are trivial, and things of 
secondary importance are sometimes exalted into principles. 
Judgments held in an open-minded way are promoters of happi- 
ness and peace. Toleration is one of the finest fruits of human 
experience. 

Readings. The body that is healthy needs good food. To 
live on unwholesome food is to court disaster. The virile mind 
needs something worthy of its power. To fill it with the infer- 
ior thought of the average daily paper or magazine is to appeal 
to its lower and passive interests and to lessen its strength. 
Many an otherwise efficient mind has been spoiled by excessive 
reading of cheap novels. Its power has been sapped, and work 
which otherwise would have been interesting, has become flat 
and stale because it lacked the dash and spirit of a tale of 
fancy. There should be an advance from the fifteen cent maga- 
zine with its sensuous appeal, to the stories in the better grade 
of periodicals. A wholesome interest should be taken in the 
ordinary trials and successes of people, rather than in pining for 
the bizarre and vulgar or the silly sentimental with their 
depressing influence on the mental life. 

Action, Madame Montesorri trains the little children in 
good habits of thought by having them act correctly. The 
grades demands muscular responses; the High Schools are 
branching out with manual training and domestic science. Edu- 
cators realize that a person never completely has a thought until 
he has acted on it. To have an idea is like driving a nail 
through a board, to act on it is like turning over the board and 
clinching it on the other side. A nail is easily pulled out 
before it is bent, and an idea is quickly forgotten if we do not 
act on it. Robust and vivid ideas follow responses ; when there 
is reaction to opinions, thought is clarified and careful, for the 



^44 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

defects of careless thinking are at once apparent in the work. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What value has action for thought? Does this suggest 
any obligation? 

2. What do we mean when we say **a man has good judg- 
ment?" Is there any obligation here? 

3. How does attention bear on one's success in school 
work ? 

4. What would you mean by * 'concentration" in the study 
of a physics lesson? 

5. Indicate some values that come from good mental habits. 

6. What relation exists between success in a profession and 
habit formation? 

7. Are we under obligation to train the senses in the kin- 
dergarten and lower grades; and if so, why? 

8. Why should the use of a thing and the word designating 
it be connected? 

9. What do we mean by concentration? 

10. Are we under moral obligations to not read yellow 
journals and cheap novels? 

11. Why does such reading interfere with mental health? 

12. What will enable you to hold your attention on a sub- 
ject? 

13. Does a good memory aid us in life? 

14. Give suggestions that will aid us in memory work. 

15. Is there any needed relation between new problems and 
thinking? 

16. What advantage is there in attending to one thing at 
a time? 

17. Why do we remember things in which we are inter- 
ested ? 



Mental Hygiene 245 

18. Suggest aids to remembering the rules in geometry. 

19. Are we under any obligation to think? 

20. Why does thinking aid greatly in making a man a 
leader ? 

21. Are we under any moral obligation to remember? 



CHAPTER XXIV 



EMOTIONAL HYGIENE 



Introduction. The last one hundred years has witnessed 
marvelous advances in the control of the natural w^orld. This 
has been possible because of the inductive study of nature and 
the conviction of the uniformity of natural law. In the last 
few years men have taken up the study of the mind with new 
zeal. Now they are using the inductive method in research 
and are conscious that mental facts are also governed by dis- 
coverable laws. The titles of such books as **The Hygiene 
of the Mind," ''Brain and Personality," and 'Tsychic Treat- 
ment of Nervous Disorders" show one of the greatest tenden- 
cies of our time. Psychologists are aware that the emotional 
life is orderly, and they know many of the conditions that 
make for healthy feelings. 

Instincts. The chicken knows how to press oil from the oil 
gland and how to apply it to her feathers. The snake is able 
to strike, using its grooved teeth and poison sac; the bird can 
build its nest, and the bee its honeycomb — all without train- 
ing. When animals act in some useful way without previous 
experience or thought, the response is instinctive. Acts of 
this type are almost legion. Man is near to the animals in 
that he makes more instinctive responses than any of them. A 
few of the instincts common to men are: Biting, clasping, 
moving, crying, smiting, imitation, anger, fear, rivalry, pug- 
nacity, curiosity, play, parental love, jealousy, and shyness. 
Steam is the force within which makes the engine go; instincts 
are the feelings which drive us ahead. They give us a start. 
They push us when otherwise we would stop. Stand before 

246 



Emotional Hygiene 247 

a building and look up, and note how curiosity will make 
others do likewise. The instinct of hunger brings us to the 
table. Pugnacity leads us to hold on just to succeed. Fear 
causes us to hasten from the place of danger. Parental love 
aids in keeping the mother at the bedside of the sick child 
through the weary hours of the night. 

But, if we are not careful, instincts will take us out of the 
bounds of morality. It may have been all right for a man to 
crush the skull of another with a stone in ages past, but the 
instinct of fighting must now be expressed in some other way. 
Today men compete in business for the profits of trade. Anger 
may cause a man to kill, or to strive for social righteousness. 
In man, reason must come in and rule, controlling the instincts. 
Many people think instincts are to be crushed, but they have 
a right to be exercised when directed by reason. They are 
not sinful in themselves. Their abuse is a fault. Controlled, 
they are the great incentives to healthy living. 

Healthy Feelings, Emotions are healthy when they arise in 
connection with an interest in objects and actions. They can 
be separated into aesthetic, intellectual and personal, as a mat- 
ter of convenience. 

{a) Aesthetic Feelings, The fine arts may be classified as 
those of painting, music, sculpture, and architecture. The can- 
vas gives a picture in colors, and those who gaze at it are taken 
out of themselves in discovering something new. Corot's 
^'The Skylark'' stirs the onlookers w^th its abounding youth, 
aspiration, and joy. It presents an ideal which becomes an 
incentive to action. Because of its unity it is a symbol of the 
perfection desired in life. Stand before the cathedral of 
Cologne, and feelings appropriate to the object are awakened. 
Its bulk causes a feeling of awe, yet it does not jar the sensi- 
bilities, for here are found proportion in all the parts and 
unity in the whole. Aesthetic emotions are aroused by the 



248 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

grace with which **The Discus Thrower" is poised and the 
symmetry of the ^'Winged Victory/* Poetry charms because 
it expresses thoughts in a beautiful way. In music there is a 
blending of harmonies. A waltz catches and carries the dancers 
along. Beautiful things affect the emotional life in three ways: 
they call forth appreciation, inspire to action, and give peace. 

{b) Intellectual Feelings. Thought is concerned with re- 
lations. The natural result of discovering a relation is pleas- 
ure. When a problem has been solved, or a good recitation 
has been made, there is satisfaction. There is generally a 
period of tension or eagerness until the correct result is ob- 
tained, and if there is failure it is accompanied by disappoint- 
ment. When a relation is definitely seen, it is felt to be clear. 
People are naturally curious and wonder at the things about 
them. Only a diseased mind takes no interest in things. 
Those who can find nothing of interest in the world of rela- 
tions, natural or social, are the individuals who have coddled 
their personal feelings until they have lost interest both in 
themselves and the real world. Such persons need separation 
from their insignificant conceits; also a consciousness of the 
values that are without. There is a sense of self-control which 
comes to the educated man, which others do not possess. He 
feels at home in the world. He knows the causes for condi- 
tions and is not confused because he does not understand them. 
Perhaps the great benefit of an education is this consciousness 
of personal security and self-possession. As he discovers new 
connections, other relations are recognized and near and past 
achievements incite him to further endeavors. 

(c) Personal. There are also feelings which spring up as 
people relate themselves to others, such as sympathy, antipathy, 
pride, humility, love, hate, the sense of right and wrong, rever- 
ence, etc. Sympathy may be taken as an example of what con- 
stitutes the normal exercise of feeling. Sympathy is having 



Emotional Hygiene 249 

another's experience as it occurs to him. If a person wishes to 
spoil a good appreciation of another's experience, let him think: 
**How sympathetic I have been," and before he knows it, selfish 
self-exaltation has driven out a normal appreciation of the other 
person. 

As long as others do not practice evil, we should be tolerant 
of all they think and do, for life is really significant to them 
when lived in their own way. Sympathy is the greatest single 
aid to an accurate appreciation of one's environment. To 
sympathize with a man who has the toothache is to think how 
he feels. To think how sympathetic one is, is to blight an 
otherwise healthy emotion. 

Professor James, describing an experience of his own, has 
pictured for us an attractive case of sympathy. He sa3^s: 
^^^Some years ago, while journeying in the mountains of North 
Carolina, I passed by a large number of ^coves,' as they call 
them there, or heads of small valleys between the hills, which 
had been newly cleared and planted. The impression on my 
mind was one of unmitigated squalor. The settler had in every 
case cut down the more manageable trees, and left their charred 
stumps standing. The larger trees he had girdled and killed in 
order that their foliage should not cast a shade. He hnd then 
built a log cabin, plastering its chinks with clay, and had set up 
a tall zigzag rail fence around the scene of his havoc to keep 
the pigs and cattle out. Finally, he had irregularly planted the 
intervals between the stumps and trees with Indian corn which 
grew among the chips; and there he dwelt with his wife and 
babes — an ax, a gun, a few utensils, and some pigs and chickens 
feeding in the woods, being the sum total of his pos- 
sessions. 

"Then I said to the mountaineer who was driving mc, 



*Talks to Teachers — William James, pp. 231-234. 



250 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

^What sort of people are they who have to make these new 
clearings?* *A11 of us/ he replied. 'Why, we ain't happy 
here unless we are getting one of these coves under cultivation/ 
I instantly felt that I had been losing the whole inward signifi- 
cance of the situation. Because to me the clearings spoke of 
naught but denudation, I thought that to those whose sturdy 
arms and obedient axes had made them they could tell no other 
story. But when they looked on the hideous stumps, what they 
thought of was personal victory. The chips, the girdled trees, 
and the vile split rails spoke of honest sweat, persistent toil and 
final reward. The cabin was a warrant of safety for self and 
wife and babes. In short, the clearing, which to me was a mere 
ugly picture on the retina, was to them a symbol redolent with 
moral memories and sang a very paean of duty, struggle and 
success. 

'^I had been blind to the peculiar ideality of their conditions 
as they certainly would also have been to the ideality of mine 
had they had a peep at my strange indoor academic ways of life 
at Cambridge.'* 

^'Wherever a process of life communicates an eagerness to 
him who lives it, there the life becomes genuinely significant." 

Religious feeling is natural. There are many problems in 
life which are not understood and there is a consciousness of 
our limitation and weakness under many circumstances. Then 
men may turn to a Power greater than themselves and in 
religion gain security, horizon, and hope. The facts of life have 
made manhood reverent, and rightly so. 

Feelings are ordinarily healthy when directed toward things 
or persons. To be reverent before the moral law or under the 
stars is natural. 

To summarize: Become interested in people and in things. 
Keep the attention on relations of worth and things of value, 
and the emotional life will be healthy and it will develop. 



Emotional Hygiene 251 

Observation of the worth of emotions shows that they give 
value to thoughts, making them vivid and personal. Were it 
not for emotion, thoughts would seem alike, and none would 
impress us greatly. They would be so many abstract formula- 
tions of the mind. What is it that warms the heart when home 
is mentioned but leaves it untouched by "397,481"? What 
stirs the patriot when he sees the flag and makes the feet keep 
time to martial music? Thoughts are set in different feelings 
and hence are valued as different. Adults never again eat pies 
''like mother used to make," because the satisfying response 
of childhood can not again be made, 

James-Lange Theory of Emotions, Professors James and 
Lange have proposed a theory of emotions that has practical 
bearings. They said, in substance, first, we think; then we 
react; then we feel. If a man sees a bear when on the street, 
he is not excited if he mistakes it for a dog, but, as soon as he 
thinks it is a bear, his muscles stiffen, he holds his breath, and 
then he is frightened. Or, to use a simple illustration, ask a 
person to bend over and" pretend he is lifting a pail of water. 
If he tries hard, he can feel the weight of the pail. Now, to 
show that feeling follows muscular response, let him assume the 
same position and be careful to breathe easily. Let him relax 
the muscles of the body and arm, and try to get the feeling of 
lifting. He will find it is absent. The James-Lange theory^ 
of the emotions is quite well established in part, and it bears 
on emotional health. If there are no adequate ways of respond- 
ing in different situations, there will be misery, confusion, and 
embarrassment in the emotional life. If a man does not know 
how to tip his hat, or use his fork, or write a letter, he wnll 
find himself constantly embarrassed. If he cannot react proper- 
ly in moral situations, business emergencies, and religious ser- 
vices, he is confused and dissatisfied. 

Pleasure is the emotional accompaniment of self-realization. 



252 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

A healthy emotional life follows a system of satisfactory re- 
sponses. If a person feels like giving up his seat in a street-car, 
he should get up; if he wants to pick up a handkerchief that 
some one has dropped, he should do it; if the walk needs the 
snow cleaned off, he should shovel it; if the gate needs fixing, 
he should mend it; and if the lesson needs completing, the stu- 
dent should finish it. It is not profitable to wallow in soft 
sentiments and never do concrete deeds. The well-known illus- 
tration of a Russian lady crying over the characters in a play 
while her coachman is freezing on the seat outside, is a typical 
example of strong feeling and a lack of action.* Actions can 
be controlled and thus feelings can be governed. If a person 
feels discouraged, let him whistle and sing and shortly he will 
be cheerful again. If he is ready to give up because the lesson 
is hard, he can start in and work at it and the feeling of defeat 
will be overcome. If he is bashful, he can act as if he were not 
and thus find relief. 

Reason and Feelings. Feelings become diverse and clear as 
our thoughts and responses are varied and definite. I shall 
speak now only of our thoughts as they relate to feelings. 
The skilled vocalist thinks the fine distinctions and modifica- 
tions of sound and then produces them. Those who will not 
think clearly feel vaguely and in the mass. The attractive 
talker thinks, and, hence, is able to awaken in us the definite 
emotions he himself feels. The upright man has sharply de- 
fined ideas concerning right and wrong, hence, a conscience 
that strongly approves or censures. The variety of our emo- 
tions depends on our thoughts. As a man thinks, so is his 
emotional life. , Sympathy and insight go together. A great 
mind and large heart would be a normal condition. 

Practical Suggestions. A good rule to follow is to go to 



*The Principles of Psychology, James, Vol I, p. 125. 



Emotional Hygiene 253 

bed when tired and get up at once when awake. To spend 
three or four hours in day dreams is to court emotional dis- 
aster. The mind is not in full control when a person is only 
partly awake; the body and lower centers are alert and sug- 
gesting things on their level. To revel in such thoughts is 
to fix in the mind habits of thinking that are sure to become 
active when full consciousness returns, and to fill our minds 
with questionable thoughts. To think of next to nothing in 
waking hours is a very unprofitable practice. It is best to get 
up when the alarm sounds, wait until sleepy before going to bed, 
and have work enough to claim the attention during waking 
hours. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Is continuous day dreaming a normal condition of the 
mind in waking hours? 

2. If a boy has not control of his temper and in a fit of 
anger harms another, is he guilty? 

3. What is the connection between correct actions and sat- 
isfactory feelings? 

4. What gives the educated man the feeling of security? 

5. What is sympathy? 

6. What is the main point in James' illustration of the 
mountaineer? 

7. Should the instincts be entirely suppressed? 

8. What is the matter with a miser? 

9. What is the place of the instincts in life? 

10. When are aesthetic feelings healthy? 

11. Why is there rest for us in a beautiful object? Does 
its completeness bear on the above question? 

12. What should be the relation of reason to the instincts? 

13. What is the matter with the woman who weeps at 
poverty in a theater and refuses to help the poor? 



254 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

14. What IS the benefit of giving a working woman a seat 
in a street car? 

15. How does the James-Lange theory bear on emotional 
health ? 

16. How does close and discriminating thought aid the 
emotional life? 

17. What is it that gives vividness to an individual's 
thoughts ? 

18. Why is a keepsake more to us than something we buy? 

19. Are religious feelings natural? 

20. Could anger be a healthy feeling? 

21. Does good music help us to rid ourselves of undesirable 
feelings ? 

22. What is the value of substituting good acts for evil 
ones in controlling wrong feelings? 



CHAPTER XXV 



VOLITIONAL HYGIENE 



The Biological Conception. I have always respected a cat 
with which I played when a child. I had been teasing it one 
day, when it turned on its back. Thoughtlessly, I put my 
hand between its front paws and twisted its chin. After pull- 
ing my hand away, I found a number of long scratches on my 
wrist. The cat had wrapped its front paws about my hand 
and vigorously struck out behind with a good effect. In that 
difficult situation in life, it could not have acted better. The 
biological test can be applied to men as well as to the animals. 
It is: Do they fit efficiently into their environment? If they 
do, they have well-fashioned wills. Men differ from the ani- 
mals in that their environment is more extended, — for politics, 
religion, education, and business demand their consideration. 
Still, the test of satisfactory adjustment to environment will 
do for all living beings. 

Something is wrong with an animal that cannot react. A 
hungry dog that will not chase a rabbit is not normal. Cer- 
tain persons at parties are designated as wall-flowers, which is 
a picturesque way of saying they cannot feel at home at social 
functions. A cat may steal milk, but we never have read a 
treatise on its moral responsibility, or on the sins of honey bees 
that sting, or on the moral righteousness of the plow horse. 
Man enjoys levels of life strange to the animal world, but the 
measure of the life of both human beings and animals is com- 
mon: It is how completely does each appropriate the things 
of worth? 

Freedom. Some men have said we cannot be what we 

255 



256 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

should, for we are not free. They would confine us to a few 
natural and acquired reactions and they hold that life must be 
spent in the treadmill of a narrow existence. Man must do 
just as he has done before; he has no freedom to become other 
than that which he is. On the other hand, there are those 
who say they can do anything or become anything. They say: 
**Choose and become." Yet there are no uncivilized com- 
munities that can suddenly act like academic centers. The 
fact is, the truth lies between these extremes. Past knowledge, 
habits and education determine largely what an individual will 
be; yet, at the same time, by a series of choices and by form- 
ing new habits, he can alter his life for better or worse. He 
becomes freer or more bound. He is never entirely bound, or 
wholly free. And that is all the encouragement he needs to 
energetic action. If difficulties can be overcome and victories 
won, then it is worth while to stuggle and to achieve. 

To ask whether man is free is a foolish question, for all 
act as though they are and they will continue to do so, and 
so long as men are governed in conduct by the sense of their 
being free, what difference does it make? They feel free just 
the same, though an argument to the contrary might go against 
them. They can spend their time on some more profitable 
topic. It is like asking, *^Is there air about us, or do we live 
in space?" Grant said: "There is a time in every battle when, 
if you don't run, the other fellow will." Yet the enemy did 
not have to run, they could have stayed just a little longer if 
they had willed to do so. The will is the final court of ap- 
peal and nothing else has value equal to it. This consciousness 
that, while influenced by others, a man is responsible for his 
choice makes him aware of his responsibility, and when there 
is a balancing of moral matters he recognizes his duty. It is 
this sense of power which adds zest to life and makes its strug- 
gles heroic. This leads to the question, what are some of the 



Volitional Hygiene 257 

aids in fashioning the will ? How can it be trained ? 

Purposes. Wherever a great work is being accomplished, 
there is found that some one who is realizing a purpose. J. J. 
Hill, of the Great Northern, developed the Northwest and 
became one of the forceful business men of America by promot- 
ing railroads. John Wanamaker is a successful merchant. 
Archbishop Ireland is an apostle of the church. Carnegie devel- 
oped the steel industries, and Rockefeller developed the oil 
industry. If a man is ''jack of all trades and master of none," 
he is of little worth. The efficient life is one which has clearly 
defined purposes. As the magnet gathers the fillings of iron to 
itself, so the mind of the purposeful man is enriched by all that 
is related to his work. His study contributes to the definite 
interests of his life, for his interests have eyes which see any- 
thing of value to him. 

Purposes are forces of organization in a life, building up its 
information into useful systems. The life of the purposeful 
man is simplified — he knows what he wants; it is also unified, 
for his information aids in the realization of definite aims. 
Men of strong personality are men with conviction and tenacity. 
The latter is needed for efficient action. They will not let 
small matters turn them aside. They appropriate that which 
aids them in their work, and they disregard other things. They 
have a ''bulldog*' grip ; defeated, they are up again trying to do 
the same thing in another way, and after while they win. They 
have the power to say no, and to say it at once to whatever 
would turn them aside, no matter how alluring or pleasing it 
may be. A masterful life is like a great stationary engine. 
Both do definite tasks with ease; but the latter is a machine 
while the former a specialist. 

Meditation. Many convictions of worth are reached 
through meditation. Convictions are thoughts that are touched 
with emotion. They are not the petty devices by which we 



258 An Inductive Study of Standards of Righf 

transact business, such as some plan a merchant may devise for 
selling ties. Such thoughts are on the surface. Any idea is of 
that nature when not warmed with feeling, no matter how 
great it may be. The idea, '^There is one God," may go 
through the mind with no more force than, ''It is eleven 
o^clock." An idea, as such, never becomes a purpose. When 
plans are sanctioned by the heart, they become guides of life, or 
convictions. And while suggestions may be given us by others, 
and our emotions stirred, it is in the silences of life that many 
decisions are made which are final. An architect will plan a 
long while how to build a house until he is satisfied. A man 
should take time to decide what he considers to be of value to 
himself, and then live resolutely to realize his ideals, and not 
fritter away his time in useless indecision. If he chooses well, 
his life will be satisfactory. 

Initiative, It is the practice of a prominent railway magnate 
when a serious problem faces him, to shut himself in a room and 
think it out. The leader is a man of initiative. While others 
hesitate and wait for orders, he works ahead. A man now 
prominent in the express service was at one time an express 
messenger on a western road. One night the train came to a 
stop on the prairie, far from any station. Then some one out- 
side ordered him to open the door. He raked the hot coals 
from the stove onto the floor and called for them to wait a 
minute. The car filled with smoke. When it became so thick 
he could no longer stand it, he stepped out. The robbers were 
dumfounded ; they couldn't go into the car. It burned, but 
the money in the safe was saved. The company could give that 
man more responsibility. There was an engineer taken sick 
when on his run. His fireman telegraphed he would bring the 
passenger train through to the end of the division. He not only 
kept up steam in the engine, but stopped it at each station and 
started it again. He brought the train into the terminal on 



Volitional Hygiene 259 

time, and they gave him an engine of his own at once. The 
will to meet the unexpected successfully makes a person of great 
value to society. 

The Obstructed fVilL There is a great variety of obstructed 
wills, ranging from those who wait just a fraction of a second 
longer than is necessary to speak or act, to those who cannot act 
at all. The person who is habitually trying to make up his 
mind and cannot decide, is in an unhealthy condition. 

Ribot, ^quoting Guislain, describes an extreme type of inhibi- 
tion for us. ''The patients are able to will interiorly, mentally, 
according to the dictates of reason. They may experience the 
desire to do something, but are powerless to act accordingly. 
Their will cannot go beyond certain limits, one would say that 
the force of action within them is blocked up ; the / will does 
not transform itself into impulsive action, into active determina- 
tion. Some of these patients wonder, themselves, at the im- 
potence with which their will is stricken. When they are left to 
themselves, they pass whole days in their beds or on a chair." In 
contrast to such extraordinary cases, w^e have many almost nor- 
mal, with slight defects of retardation. Let us suppose there is a 
student who has worked hard and has his lesson, yet he is afraid 
to recite, lest he should make an error. Let such a pupil realize 
that all are liable to mistakes and attempt an answer. Life 
must be lived on the theory of probabilities. A man is not abso- 
lutely certain he will get to his office in the morning, yet prac- 
tically all the chances are in his favor. When they become few, 
then it is time to move slowly and consider carefully. Train 
yourself to act decisively. Put a time limit on your considera- 
tion of a problem. Act in very small matters promptly to 
acquire the habit of quick decision, even though the consequences 
may not be the best. 



^The Disease of the Will — Ribot, pp. 28-29. 



26o An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

The Impulsive Will, Confined in asylums are those who 
would murder, steal, or burn things if at liberty. They have 
no power to resist an impulse. That society may be safe, they 
must be restrained by force, for they are victims of an over- 
impulsive will. There are persons whose wills are set like a 
hair trigger. These mercurial and temperamental individuals 
keep us perplexed, for no one is aware of what they will do 
next, since often they do not know themselves. Such people 
need to devise checks to premature action. If inclined to recite 
and miss the facts with complacency, let them write down the 
answers to questions or be stopped as soon as a mistake is made. 
They need to be restrained rather than encouraged. In all 
probability they will not take a rebuke too seriously. Should 
such pupils be very sensitive it will require tact and patience to 
restrain them and at the same time cause them to develop. 

Doing the right thing is often a matter of applying a correct 
name. A stock of well considered names is a great aid to effi- 
cient action. To call a dishonest thing honest and then to live 
for it is to live for a false name. Let us see to it we do not 
deceive ourselves with words. 

To live a negative life is to fail. If a boy says ^*I ought not 
to smoke, but it won't make me sick. I ought not to smoke, but 
others do not refrain,'' or '*I ought not to smoke but no one 
cares whether I do or not," he is persuading himself that it is all 
right to smoke. If he says, ^'I can't afford it, it is not good for 
my health, it wastes my money and I should be ashamed of my 
sister if she did," he may refrain. He can crowd out any 
unworthy practice by taking up with a better one. Right 
thoughts kept in the foreground displace evil ones and lead to 
good conduct. 

Habits, Keep moral ideals constantly recurring if there is 
a desire to live on a high moral level. To succeed in any ardu- 
ous task let us meditate on its problems and, in the course of 



Volitional Hygiene 261 

time, there will be acquired a whole system of worthy judg- 
ments. The struggle of youth will be replaced by the ease and 
grace of professional skill. The first law case is hard ; the four- 
hundredth one is probably easy. The life has been altered to 
meet the repeated demands made upon it. The faithful worker 
will find all else has given way, and that he is a force in his 
chosen field. This has become possible because certain profes- 
sional ideals have been kept recurrent. Acquired systems of 
thought and action now take care of him, and the honest toiler 
has become the trusted executive. 

The healthy will is one where such habits have been acquired 
that the individual can act promptly and efficiently in all the 
emergencies of life. 

Ribot, ^quoting Dr. Huckard, says of hysterical patients: 
''They act as they are led by their passions. Almost all the 
various inconstancies of their character, of their mental state 
can be summed up in these words: They do not know how 
to use their will .... it turns at the least wind like 
the weather vane on our roofs." 

Ribot, ^quoting Esquirol and describing a case of temporary 
insanity, says: ''He has recovered the entire use of his reason, 
but he will not go into the world again, although he recognizes 
he is wrong; nor take care of his business, although he knows 
that it suffers on account of his whim. His conversation is 
both rational and clever. When one speaks to him of travel- 
ing or looking after his affairs, he says, 'I know that I ought 
to do it, and yet I cannot. Your counsels are very good; I 
would like to follow your advice .... I have no will 
except not to will ; for I have all my reason ; I know what 1 
ought to do; but strength fails me when I ought to act.' " 



'The Diseases of the Will— Ribot. pp. 88-89. 
^The Diseases of the Will — Ribot, p. 29. 



262 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

QUESTIONS 

1. What defect of will is illustrated by the above quota- 
tion? 

2. What defect of will is illustrated in the above quota- 
tion ? 

3. What is the matter with a person who acts on the least 
suggestion ? 

4. What do you think is meant by a * 'completely fashioned 
will?" 

5. Why is tenacity essential to success? 

6. What is the matter with a patient, who, when asked 
to open her mouth, closes it, when asked to close here eyes, 
opens them, and when asked to shake hands, puts her hands 
behind her? 

7. Give two extreme conceptions of will, and what you 
believe to be the true view of freedom. 

8. How do these conceptions bear on moral responsibility? 

9. Can you connect a "biological" conception of life with 
a "Completely-fashioned will?" 

10. Should we be more lenient with the impulsive person 
who makes mistakes than with one who carefully plans mis- 
chief? 

11. Indicate the value of purposes in life. 

12. What is the value of meditation? 

13. Why was the illustration of the express messenger used? 

14. Can you give illustrations of the same kind? 

15. What distinguishes a conviction from a thought? 

16. What is meant by an obstinate will? 

17. Give illustrations of an obstructed will. 

18. What is meant by an impulsive will?. 

19. How would you treat an impulsive will? 

20. How would you treat an obstinate will? 



Volitional Hygiene 263 

21. Describe a healthy will. 

22. Does an employer want a man who is obstinate? 

23. Can an employer use to advantage an over-impulsive 
person ? 

24. Does obstinacy interfere with friendship? 



PART IX 
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS 



CHAPTER XXVI 



PLAY 



Play is an Instinctive Form of Action, All children possess 
the impulse to play. This tendency is rooted in instinct and, 
having such a basis, it is an essential factor of every child's 
life. All animals play and with them man is included. Kit- 
tens roll and tumble when a ball is passed in front of them. 
Dogs romp together, birds wheel and dart in the air with ap- 
parently no purpose, horses race across the pasture, and fish 
leap out of the water in the sheer joy of living. Man is no 
exception to all other living things. The excess of energy 
found in children finds expression in the loosely organized ac- 
tivities of play. 

The play of small children is largely individual, is not or- 
ganized, and it is of short duration. But as they pass out of 
the primary grades and come to the upper elementary grades 
and the high school their play assumes a different character, 
because they have entered the period of adolescence. They 
now engage in group games, such as baseball, basketball, foot- 
ball and tennis. This is because with their advance into the 
adolescent stage they have become more social in all their ac- 
tions. 

Play is a Means of Physical Education, All the time young 
people are playing they are growing in physical and mental and 
moral strength. The incessant activity of children in play 
gives them a good appetite, causes them to breathe deeply, sends 
the blood racing to all parts of the body and develops the 
muscles. Nature teases them into playing and then, unknown 
to them, builds them up in body. It is often difficult for 

267 



268 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

students to follow some well-planned course of physical cul- 
ture for the increase of bodily vigor, but almost all delight to 
engage in games. They, like the younger children, are tricked 
by nature into preserving and developing bodily health. And 
what a joy there is in the sense of animal vigor which goes 
with play. Many times there is an intoxication which is the 
acme of physical pleasure. 

Play is an Instrument of Mental Development, Play has 
great mental value for each person, for it strengthens his in- 
tellectual life. The finished player has acquired skill, grace 
and precision. Victory in wrestling, boxing and hunting der 
pends on mental alertness and power as well as on brute 
strength. The baseball player has an expressive way of indi- 
cating that brains win games — he calls a thoughtless player a 
**bone head'' meaning thereby that he does not think. This 
suggestive phrase applies almost wholly to the player's lack of 
mental ability. Mr. Albert G. Spalding, who had been suc- 
cessful as a baseball player and business man, said: ^^'I never 
struck anything in business that did not seem a simple matter 
when compared with complications I have faced on the base- 
ball field. A young man playing ball gets into the habit of 
quick thinking in most adverse circumstances and under the 
most merciless criticism of the world — the criticism from the 
bleachers. If that doesn't train him, nothing can. Baseball 
in youth has the effect in later life of making him think and 
act a little more quickly than the other fellow." 

About the only intellectual training received by some stu- 
dents at college is that which they acquire in connection with 
their athletics. Here they develop concentration of attention 
to the exclusion of all else other than the matter in hand ; here 
they acquire the power to consider swiftly all the factors in a 



^Outlook, May 17, 1913, p. 106. 



Play 269 

situation and to arrive at a balanced judgment; here, having 
reached a conclusion, they are forced to act at once, and if 
their judgment is not good they are checked up immediately by 
the disastrous result which foUov^s. In games, success or fail- 
ure is generally quickly evident, and this furnishes a real in- 
centive to correct one's faults. 

The Moral Life is Strengthened by Play, G. Stanley Hall 
says, **Play at its best is only a school of ethics." Among the 
earliest of the child's conceptions of justice is that of "fair 
play" which he is taught in games. Perhaps this is the most 
vivid moral experience in a child's life as he mingles with his 
fellows. And fair play means two things, ''turn about," and 
"according to the rules of the game." Practically all games 
admit of the individual coming forward in his turn. In base- 
ball each has a chance at the bat and then waits for all the 
rest. In tennis one's turn comes quickly. In basketball and 
football the plays are rapidly shifted and in games where two 
are engaged, such as dancing, wrestling and boxing, each per- 
son is constantly active. When such is the case fair play 
means each in order. Then by fair play we may also mean 
abiding by the rules that govern the games. When there is a 
referee he judges whether or not the plays are fair by their 
conformity to rules that have been laid down. 

When young people engage in group games they quickly be- 
come conscious of the fact that both sides must conform to the 
rules, or the game will break up in disorder. The necessity 
of law becomes apparent in group games, and here it is self- 
evident that law is desirable. Law, which seems to limit stu- 
dents and arouse their resentment, is here seen to be attractive. 
Respect for law, because it is reasonable, and willingness to 
conform to it is taught to those who engage in group games. 
The necessity of self-sacrifice becomes apparent to the student 
who is a member of a team. The most valuable person on a 



270 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

team may not be the one who indulges in spectacular plays — 
in fact, such an individual may be a detriment. The manager 
of the baseball team wants the man who when called upon to 
do so will make ^ ''sacrifice hit" for the sake of the game. 
The player who has not learned to place the game ahead of 
his personal advantage cannot be of the greatest worth. In 
group games players are taught obedience to rightfully consti- 
tuted authority. When a team has selected a captain, what 
he says is to be accepted as final. It disgusts others to see 
the members of a team quarrel with the leader. The worthy 
member does as he is told by the one who has been chosen to 
lead. Many games teach self-control. In boxing, it is folly 
to get angry even though hard pressed; in basketball, the 
player who loses his temper is of little worth; in tennis the 
disgruntled player is taken up with matters that divert him, 
and thereby becomes less capable. 

There are Grades of Play, The work of life has been re- 
duced to a science. Almost every life work is highly special- 
ized, and requires preparation as an apprentice before a person is 
thoroughly capable. There are also levels in the play life. 
There are plays that are purely physical, those that are intel- 
lectual, and those that are artistic. Primitive peoples are a 
prey to crude recreation, such as gambling, drinking and the 
using of drugs. The man who has not learned some high 
form of recreation is in moral danger, for when people start 
to practice evil, it usually begins in some form of rough or 
uncouth play. If an individual has fortified himself by learn- 
ing some form of high class entertainment, such as profitable 
reading, a good hobby, an interest in music or painting, or in 
wholesome physical exercises, he is protected from those temp- 
tations which come to the untutored in play. Since intensity 
of labor has shortened the hours of work, there is need of 
training in methods of profitable diversion, because so much of 



Play 271 

the workers^ time, is spent in recreation. 

The Relation of Play to Work. Play in training an individ- 
ual physically really equips him for better work. It has prepa- 
ratory value in that unconsciously the vv^orker has been benefited 
in such vi^ays that he is better equipped for labor for having 
played. While many kinds of play are less strenuous than 
work, they are not necessarily so, for in some games the par- 
ticipants labor harder than in almost any occupation in which 
men engage. There are differences between play and work; 
in the former, the exercise is voluntary, while in the latter it 
is generally necessary. The player can drop the game in a 
short time and need not start again unless he desires. The 
worker often has to return to the same task, for food and shel- 
ter depend upon his application to his work. In the one case 
the end is immediate and in the other it is remote. As a game 
increases in difficulty it approaches work, for it requires con- 
tinual application for its mastery. The chess game, which re- 
quires a whole evening for its completion, is dull and uninter- 
esting to many persons, because it so closely approximates labor. 

Often when we attend parties, in place of being given sim- 
ple problems that can be worked in a few minutes, we receive 
a long list of questions to answer which taxes our powers and 
which takes so long a time to complete that we find, for all 
practical purposes, we have been at work instead of at play. 
Yet all work is not drudgery. As rapidly as we master our 
tasks and become thoroughly efficient, they become easy and the 
discharge of our daily duties then becomes habitual and often 
pleasurable. Many succeed in introducing the play spirit into 
their tasks and thereby greatly lighten the burden of their 
labor. This is particularly true of geniuses in whose fertile 
minds a multitude of ideas spring up with apparently little 
effort and who are fascinated by the creations of their own 
minds as their ideas sprout and grow. Happy is the worker 



2^2 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

who IS so absorbed in his task that it charms him and in whose 
mind appear so many novel ideas that the change of his thought 
is like the interesting and unexpected found in play. Most of 
the mighty workers of the world have learned the secret of 
playing at their labor and, in fact, there are many who have 
never developed any other way of playing and, hence, are found 
continually at their tasks. They may not be in need of all the 
sympathy they receive, their way of playing having never been 
guessed by their fellows. 

Amusements and Play, When we speak of play we gener- 
ally think of some active form of recreation. But there are 
times when the individual is so worn by labor that all he de- 
sires is to remain quiet and have his mind taken entirely away 
from his work. When a person is a spectator of the activity 
of others who are entertaining him, then he is seeking amuse- 
ment. And amusement, or passive enjoyment of music, or 
theaters, baseball or other sports may be profitable to the tired 
worker. In that complete separation from former tasks which 
comes through fascinating amusements the mind regains its 
power to return with renewed energy to the sterner aflEairs of 
life. Those men who have wrought for the advancement of 
society have devoted themselves with all their powers to the 
realization of some worthy purpose and have used amusement 
only as a means of regaining full control of their faculties and 
not as an end in itself. There is real danger of falling into 
the attitude of desiring to be entertained continually and losing 
the power of sustained effort. W. C. Bagley describes an 
actual tendency in American life when he says there are those, 
^"who are veritable slaves of distracting influences. To them 
quiet and seclusion are irksome and laborious, and the occupa- 
tions that involve the absence of frequent distractions become 
tedious and unbearable. The love of change which is sporadic 



^The Educative Process— W. C. Bagley. pp. 101-102. 



Play 273 

and occasional in the average man is normal with them. Such 
individuals may be capable almost to the point of genius, but 
the incapacity for sustained effort renders exceptional gifts al- 
most entirely without value. In short, the abnormal liking for 
change and variety, for life' and noise, for the excitements of 
the theater, the race track, and the gaming-table is unmistak- 
able evidence, either of arrested development, or of decay and 
degeneration. It is something that grows upon itself; idleness 
begets idleness. At best the supports that hold the race to the 
plane of civilization are frail and insecure enough.*' 

We must be constantly alert to see that amusements do not 
obtain an unlawful place in life and that we are not drawn 
into organized forms of idleness whose only value is a thrill. 

Hi£[h School Problems, Perhaps the main problem in high 
school athletics is the coach. He should be moral in the finest 
sense. If he tolerates trickery or fraud, he becomes a direct 
teacher of deceit and dishonesty, but if he be just, courageous, 
and manly he becomes a mighty influence for the advancement 
of his pupils. Of course he should have technical skill to con- 
duct his department with profit. Secondly, there is the general 
problem of the control of athletics. How are they to be fi- 
nanced? What provision is to be made for absences from 
classes? How are professionals to be kept out and what sys- 
tem of awards is to be adopted? Thirdly, athletic courtesy is 
to be developed, rules are to be respected, coaches obeyed, vis- 
iting teams treated as gentlemen and the good points in others 
freely recognized. 

Jokes. One of the constant forms of play is the joke. While 
there are all kinds of jokes, we can divide them roughly into two 
classes; the profitable and the unprofitable. Under the latter 
we would put all jokes that are crude and vulgar, that hurt 
others and that make them appear as inferior. Under the 
former we would place that wit which pleases and which profits 



274 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

— in which none are made to appear at a disadvantage, whether 
it be dry or droll, or bright and sparkling. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What constitutes fair treatment of the referee on the 
part of the student? 

2. What special dangers in not knowing how to play at 
anything ? 

3. If play promotes intellectual vigor, are we under moral 
obligation to play? 

4. When are amusements of special value? 

5. Should women have an equal opportunity with men to 
play ? 

6. Give special reasons why women should have recreation. 

7. Is gambling a worthy form of amusement? 

8. When may work have in it the elements of play? 

9. Name five forms of play desirable for girls, not more 
than two of which fall under athletics. 

10. What is a fair penalty in case a player persistenly at- 
tempts to break the rules? 

11. How do games teach us the value of law? 

12. What do you consider to be a desirable joke? 

13. In case an opposing team persisted in ungentlemanly 
conduct, would you schedule another game with them? 

14. What is the character of the games of young children? 

15. Would you place all theaters in the same class morally? 

16. What difference between the games found in the high 
schools and those found in the primary grades? 

17. What has caused boxing to fall into disrepute? 

18. Give reasons why play develops the moral life? 

19. What are the disadvantages of football? 

20. What advantage to children in constant physical ac- 
tivity ? 



Play 275 

21. In what ways does play differ from work? 

22. What are the distinctive advantages of wrestling, 
baseball, tennis, skating and basketball? 

23. Can you give illustrations of ways in which play is used 
in the course of study for educational purposes? 

24. Is it to the advantage of secondary schools' athletics 
that professionals be permitted to enter games? 

25. How would you distinguish between amusement and 
play? 

26. What great danger in amusements? 



CHAPTER XXVIl 



MANNERS 



The Reason for Manners. Manners are methods of fnter- 
course which society has found to be profitable for men in their 
social relations. They are not the products of chance. The 
reason for a social practise may have been forgotten but if it 
has persisted in use, a careful examination will probably show 
that it has a good cause. Of course some things sanctioned 
by custom become obsolete, yet most of the conventionalities are 
useful. Manners are a highly elaborated system which people 
have devised for protecting themselves and promoting their own 
interests, and the conventionalities of etiquette persist because 
of their worth to the individual and to society as a whole. 

Variations in Manners. The manners of different countries 
are not alike because the ideals of what is proper vary. The 
Turkish conception of women will not permit them to venture 
outside an enclosure unless they are veiled, because in that land 
woman is not regarded as trustworthy. The high regard 
which Americans have for women makes possible for them a 
large amount of liberty. The moral conceptions of any people 
will determine for them those forms of conduct which seem to 
promote their interests. There will be only one set of man- 
ners for society when it attains to a single group of ideals. 
We ought not to be surprised at the diversity of social customs, 
neither should we consider any of them purely artificial for 
they are an expression of the spirit of various peoples; of social 
atmospheres in which those of kindred minds have maintained 
like practices. These outward forms have been the means by 
which the finest sentiments of diverse peoples have found ex- 

276 



Manners 277 

pression and by which externally they have been able to live 
in a common spiritual presence. 

Manners as a Means of Self-Expression — Introductions, 
Calls, Invitations, Hotels, Conversation, Telephoning, Smok- 
ing, Chaperons, Business, Dress, For a young person to think 
his manners are unimportant is to show how little he appreciates 
the forms of conduct which society has devised for his benefit. 
He may say, ''I do not want to be bound down by forms." 
That only indicates how inadequately he has grasped the sig- 
nificance of manners. They are not bonds but instruments of 
freedom through the use of which a person may realize him- 
self. Suppose he must write a letter to a business house order- 
ing a bill of goods. If his manners are good this will be prop- 
erly done; if not he will waste his time in trying to devise a 
correct form of business letter and will probably produce an 
odd and crude communication. The detail of a good business 
letter should come to him as a matter of habit. A lack of 
knowledge of accepted practises leads to shame and confusion, 
to a loss of time and to public ridicule. 

We might use a number of illustrations from common social 
activities to show how well the accepted standards of etiquette 
permit the finest self-expression. Take the matter of intro- 
ducing one person to another. This may be a fine art. Sup- 
pose a cultured woman attends a party given in her honor and, 
as the guests are presented to her, the hostess says: "Mr. 
Smith, let me introduce to you Mrs. Brown." This careless 
hostess has unconsciously honored the gentleman above the lady 
and the one for whom the entertainment was planned. To 
present a woman to a number of men and persist in such a 
mistake would show not only ignorance of the proprieties but 
a lack of a fine sense of the fitness of things. 

An ardent young clerg>^man with the best intentions persisted 
in calling at the homes of his parishioners between the hours of 



278 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

ten and twelve in the morning, at a time when the housewives 
were busy. That, with a few other improprieties, made it nec- 
essary for him to seek another field. An individual who re- 
peatedly calls upon another when no visit has been returned 
ought not to take too much to heart a somewhat open and 
forceful suggestion that the visits are not mutually agreeable. 
In visiting it is the common practice to leave one^s hat and coat in 
the hallway. The parlor is supposed to be sufficiently deco- 
rated. It might be well not to stay more than fifteen minutes 
if not intimately acquainted or urgently requested by the party 
upon whom the call has been made. 

The regular form for an invitation to dinner is: **Mr. and 
Mrs. C. H. W. request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. M. C. 
F.*s company at dinner on Thursday, February eighth, at eight 
o'clock,'* and the reply repeats the principal points of the in- 
vitation, thus: *'Mr. and Mrs. M. C. F. accept with pleasure 
Mr. and Mrs. C. H. W.'s kind invitation for Thursday, Feb- 
ruary eighth, at eight o'clock.'' In case a reply is desired many 
insert R. S. V. P. in the invitation. But good taste would 
demand that a reply be sent even though the suggestion had 
been omitted. When a dinner is given to a party of six or 
eight or more the person who is entertaining is at considerable 
expense and labor. The meal requires careful planning and 
nothing should be done by the guests to confuse or embarrass 
the hostess. To inform the hostess at the last minute that you 
have company and to expect them to be included in the invita- 
tion is presumption. To refuse the invitation and wait for a 
request from the one entertaining to bring the visitor is cer- 
tainly considerate. Bachelors have a way of accepting favors 
with no thought of returning them. To sit at a man's table 
puts us under obligation to his family. I suppose ^^sponge" 
would not be too strong a word to apply to those people who 
accept favors with no idea of returning them. Punctuality and 



Manners 279 

agreeableness to one's companion at dinner are duties one owes 
to those who have honored and favored him, 

A person is not under obligation to accept an invitation to 
dinner when the invitation is given at the last moment. If 
such is the case in a well-regulated home the recipient may 
know it was because someone could not be secured and he has 
been asked to fill a vacancy. Young people and many unmar- 
ried people are apt to be careless in their treatment of those in 
whose homes they are staying for a while. A home is not a 
hotel. If any person so views his stopping place it would have 
been better had he gone to the hotel in the first place. En- 
tertainers feel the attitude of a guest and know whether he 
has an appreciation of the delicate courtesy shown him. It 
would be an almost unalloyed privilege to entertain if it were 
true that the ornaments of a home are its guests. 

The sole purpose of social gathering is not to satisfy the ap- 
petite. People meet to forget their worries and to be stimulated 
and helped by the thoughts of others. While a little silence 
may be golden a large amount is not necessarily so; unless ex- 
ceedingly brilliant a person should not monopolize a conversa- 
tion at a dinner. Such a person may interrupt others who are 
having a pleasant chat and they will be forced to wait for 
him to lower his voice before they can continue. A helpful list 
might be made of topics upon which we ought not to converse. 
To criticise freely a private person, whether a man or woman, 
shows a lack of taste. To tell a woman who is maturing that 
nothing is as attractive as youth or to refer at length to the 
attractions and beauty of one woman to another would not be 
diplomatic. When 3'Oung people enjoy the privileges of homes 
other than their own they might either ignore or forego their 
personal interests. It is inexcusable to let one's eyes wander 
around the room in search of some who may not be present, 
heedless of what is being said and done. DeQuincy calls good 



28o An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

manners *^a system of forbearances/' 

There is apt to be carelessness of speech when others are 
not dealt with face to face. In answering a telephone the 
tone of one's voice should be as kindly as when the listener is 
present and the telephone girl ought not to be put into a class 
by herself to be hurried or browbeaten. Distance does not 
lessen the obligation to be courteous. 

The question of smoking is a perplexing one. Should a man 
smoke at all? Granted that he may, altho it is known that 
nicotine is a poison, should he smoke in the presence of ladies? 
Many gentlemen do smoke in their own parlors and they see 
nothing improper in it: A sane view probably would be not 
to smoke where a person has any idea that it would be dis- 
agreeable to others. In one's own house the wife may not 
care. In another man's home some of the members of the 
family may be offended. Circumstances will have to govern 
those who use tobacco. It is hardly necessary to discuss 
whether a woman should smoke. Those who do lose the re- 
spect of a large number of high-minded men and women whom 
they might otherwise know with profit to themselves. 

Many a young woman resents the presence of a chaperon, 
regardless of the fact that this custom is considered a neces- 
sity and greatly to her advantage. If any girl would ascer- 
tain the way in which many hotels, restaurants, dance halls, 
ice-cream parlors, roller skating rinks and other forms of pub- 
lic amusements are controlled, she would be grateful for the 
protection of some older person. But all the dangers are not 
connected with these organizations. Everywhere are the care- 
less, the slanderous and the vulgar. When a woman's repu- 
tation has been questioned, whether the reason be adequate or 
not, it is something hard to recover. Society does not easily 
forget. Grant that a girl may be able to take care of her- 
self, it often is very disagreeable for her to be forced to do so. 



Manners 281 

Pleasing manners are a great advantage in business. They 
attract and hold customers and, other things being equal, lead 
to the promotion of the employee. The superior attitude 
adopted by some clerks hardly harmonizes with a meager in- 
come or with any other salary for that matter. Many stores 
give their clerks a course of training in what constitutes good 
manners. Smile! It is the first command of business. A 
smile is a recognition of equality. A friendly interest, puts 
the customer at ease. 

It does not speak well for a young man to let his hair get 
unsightly, his clothes shabby, and his linen dirty. If he does 
he will be rated as unsuccessful. Cleanliness and neatness are 
means of self-satisfaction and advancement. Other things be- 
ing equal the well dressed man has an advantage. 

The Right Spirit, Nothing can be more artificial than the 
form of good manners where there is a cold and selfish spirit. 
But even a person at such disadvantage may be rendered bear- 
able by his conformity to social usages. But when a person is 
kind of heart and has delicacy of feeling, good manners enable 
him to fully express his respect and consideration of others. 
Holmes says, ''Don't flatter yourself that friendship authorizes 
you to say disagreeable things to your intimates but the con- 
trary, the nearer you come into a relation with a person, the 
more necessary do tact and courtesy become.'' 

The best statement of what constitutes the inner disposition 
of the person whose acts reveal the finest possible spirit is given 
in a letter written to the Corinthians where the author says, 
^''Charity suffereth long, and is kind ; charity envieth not : 
charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave 
Itself unseemly, seeketh not her own ; is not easily provoked, 
thinketh no evil; rejoiceth not in iniquity; but rejoiceth in the 

*I Cor. 13: 4-8. 



282 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

truth; beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, 
endureth all things; charity never faileth.'* 

There is a growing tendency in America to disregard old 
people and to unceremoniously push them into the back-ground. 
This trait in American life is little to its credit. In all civ- 
ilized countries those advanced in years are given the places 
of honor and the same thing is true even in the uncivilized 
countries. One of the striking contrasts between European 
and American life is the respect paid in the former to old age. 
And this is as it should be. Old people have passed through 
the experiences which must come to all and are wise with that 
learning which is acquired through testing. They are the nat- 
ural teachers of youth and when young people disregard them 
they lose for themselves one of the most valuable aids it is 
possible for them to secure. Young people cannot well afford 
to treat lightly those who have it in their power to do so 
much for them and to promote their interests in so many ways. 

The Boy Scouts of America, The Boy Scouts of America 
is an organization which is developing consideration for all 
classes of people who are in need. Its ideal of helpfulness, 
whenever there is an occasion for it, is doing much to make 
youth considerate, thoughtful, and useful. The organization 
stands for those qualities which should be found in every manly 
boy. 

When a boy takes the oath of a scout he promises to be a 
loyal, helpful and friendly scout; to do at least one good turn 
to somebody every day; to be polite to all, especially to old 
persons, the helpless, and women and children; to be clean in 
body, thought, speech and sport, and to travel with a clean 
crowd. An honest attempt by any young man to live up to 
these rules will do much to cultivate a right spirit and to 
guide him in right acts. 

Business Success. The following are some of the questions 



Manners 283 

asked by employers concerning the men who are seeking em- 
ployment of them: Does he have peculiarities or eccentricities 
that would disqualify him for the position? Can he work 
harmoniously with others? Does he use coarse, vulgar or pro- 
fane language? Do any of his family or intimate associates 
bear an unfavorable reputation? These questions show how 
important are manners in securing and holding a position. 
Perhaps the place where most workers fail is that they lack 
the power to work harmoniously with others. Such harmony 
is most fully realized when ability is coupled with good man- 
ners on the part of both employer and employee. 

QUESTIONS 

If the answers to the questions are not known, have the 
students secure answers from those competent to advise them. 

1. Are manners artificial customs? 

2. Is it easy to appreciate fine distinctions in what is right in 
behavior ? 

3. How would you introduce a young man to an elderly 
man? To an elderly lady? A young man to a young lady? 

4. How long should a first call be? 

5. Would you let a woman help you on with an overcoat? 

6. Would you ask for an invitation to dinner? 

7. Are bachelors under any obligation to return favors? 

8. Which arm would you offer to a woman going in to 
dinner? 

9. How should a hostess treat mistakes made by a guest? 

10. How would you begin a business letter? How end it? 

11. What would you do if a person at dinner was not 
interested in what you were saying? 

12. What would you say when some one had been intro- 
duced to you? 



284 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

13. Where would you smoke? Should tobacco be used at 
all? 

14. Is a chaperon necessary for a theater party? 

15. If you cannot dance would you accept an invitation to 
a ball? 

16. Should a young man invite himself to the home of a 
young woman? 

17. When should a fork be used at the table? 

18. How ought the knives, spoons and forks be arranged 
about the plate at a formal dinner? 

19. How should a servant announce to you that a person 
is downstairs and wishes to see you? 

20. What sort of a dress should a stenographer wear in 
business hours? 

21. What sort of a suit should a business man wear in 
business hours? 

22. Are good manners something which can be acquired? 

23. Is a teacher entitled to respectful consideration? 

24. Why should consideratiovi be shown old people? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 



THE FRIEND 



Uses of the Term Friend. We use the term friend in a 
variety of ways; to designate one not an enemy, to indicate 
one who confers favors on us, to describe one whom it is prof- 
itable to know, to refer to those who were our playmates in 
childhood, as a means of salutation, and as describing a rela- 
tion existing between persons of moral worth. 

It is a common practise to speak of persons who can be used 
with profit to ourselves as our friends. The bulk of business 
and also of social friendship rests on the basis of utility. Yet 
while a person may realize that others are useful to him he him- 
self may be thoroughly selfish. 

We are also inclined to call those who are pleasant and 
agreeable to us our friends. The power which some persons 
have of always doing attractive things causes them to be liked 
by almost all people. It is a great blessing to be able to re- 
late one's self favorably to all classes of people; it is an accom 
plishment greatly to be desired. 

There is the more fundamental use of the term friend, as 
designating one who has moral values which attract others to 
him. In this chapter I shall discuss this last usage and at- 
tempt to show that such friendship rests first, upon conformity 
to fundamental moral laws and, secondly, upon the cultivation 
of the more refined virtues. 

Conditions that Make for Unity of Life, Aristotle said 
that man is by nature a social being, and that raises the ques 
tion as to what extent this is true. Then we may determine 
what unity actually exists in life and see if there is that be- 

28s 



286 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

yond our present achievement which may make life increasingly 
significant. 

{a) Conformity to Fundamental Moral Laws. If man 
began as a social animal it is evident that he could not long 
continue in that state with unbridled liberty. Association 
would be possible only when certain primitive or fundamental 
virtues were recognized and observed. Some value must have 
been placed upon human life, property, truthfulness and chas- 
tity. Time would bring out the worth of these virtues as it 
became increasingly evident that association depended on 
their observance. With their recognition as binding on all, 
men took their first steps toward unity of life and self-realfza- 
tion. Hence, we find in the moral precepts of all peoples that 
they shall not lie, kill, steal, murder, and commit adultery. 

If a member of a community started out to steal, each night, 
the citizens would array themselves against him for their own 
protection. If a person will not tell the truth all who know 
him will soon be watchful that they may not be deceived. We 
must conform to the great essential moral laws of life, if we 
are to live with others with advantage to ourselves and to 
them. The man who will not regulate his conduct in har- 
mony with such laws is an enemy to society; certainly he is 
not a friend. 

Step by step men gained for themselves a more adequate 
knowledge of possible social relations that permitted a higher 
type of life, until today we have a clear understanding of the 
outstanding virtues of human life. With each new determina- 
tion of virtue, men have become more closely united, and a 
finer self-realization has been made possible, so that today we 
live in a land where, because of loyalty to such principles, we 
can associate without fear, and in safety and with pleasure do 
our tasks. This acknowledged system of restraints is the 
guardian of all that that makes life worth while. 



The Friend 287 

Yet, after all, is this the last word as to that which adds 
significance to life in our day? Are there no finer relations 
than those we have indicated ? Does such conformity to funda- 
mental law give the full satisfaction which is so much desired? 
The majority of my readers have not violated the proprieties 
as indicated by these restraints, yet they well know that in 
such conformity life is not adequately significant. They feel 
barriers which separate them from their fellows, and wonder 
whether, after all, these can be broken down and a more vital 
relationship established, only to recognize that, when injured 
by taint, avarice and falsehood, these necessary principles are 
of infinite worth. Yet I venture to assume that life is 
not full-orbed, when we have done justly as men now under- 
stand it. Lying beyond the things which are evident are things 
vaguely felt for which we earnestly hope. 

{b) Conformity to the Finer Social Laws. A friend is 
true at all points to the common obligations resting on all men. 
From these he cannot depart and retain the spirit of a friend. 
Yet in friendship he has found a new code of laws, as real 
and binding as the old, and as strictly defined, and he wonders 
at his former blindness. He sees that a certain fair estimate 
of himself is necessary, that in the strife of personalities others 
than himself should survive and gain self-expression. He sor- 
rows for the faults of men but to bitter sarcasm is an alien. 
He stands the scrutiny of the pure; in his life there is no dark 
stain. He has the charm that comes from growth and the at- 
tractiveness of those who freshen with changing views. He 
is unselfish and without envy and distrust. He erects no arti- 
ficial barriers in life. 

The finer virtues of humility, sympathy, gentleness and tol- 
erance are essential to a complete friendship. If a conversa- 
tion is all one-sided friendship cannot flourish, for that humility 
which allows a mutual expression of opinion is absent. If an 



288 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

associate is overbearing or intolerant there is no room for friend- 
ship. The laws of the land do not demand that men possess 
these virtues but the laws of friendship require their observance. 
Without these subtle refinements of virtue the finest friendship 
is not possible. 

A friend is a self-sufRcient soul of that lasting quality of 
life that is blessed in itself and blesses all it touches. While 
others may make great contributions to his life, in a crisis he 
is independent, for he has found the only significant success is 
the mastery of self in terms of those virtues which make for 
permanent satisfaction and he knows that victory within is fre- 
quently unseen and unknown in any external way. He has 
achieved the character of a reliable and noble friend. 

The Need of Friendship, Friendship bears directly on our 
common social relations. Many a child drifts from his parents 
and many parents lose the confidence and respect of their chil- 
dren. The relations of husband and wife are frequently 
strained, and the divorce courts have little leisure. Capital 
and labor are locked in combat and the solutions offered for 
their differences seem forced and artificial. A number of 
churches are torn by internal contentions. What is needed? 
Can it be a reinterpretation of the primitive virtues in 
the light of friendship? Can life's common obligations be 
transformed so as to mean more than before? When friend- 
ship's ties bind parents to children, a finer justice prevails. 
When parents have been united at this altar, many so-called 
''just differences" disappear. When the employer and the em- 
ployee agree, the final word is ''friend" and not "enemy"; 
present industrial obligations will be restated; and when 
churches know the power of the friendly life the petty jealousies 
and many seemingly necessary differences will be no more. All 
virtues are rejuvenated through friendship, and in its bright 
light are as clearly defined to the discerning eye as the more 



The Friend 289 

common laws of life to the uninitiated. 

Friendship as a Practical Force, Friendship has been a great 
practical force in politics, religion, philosophy and art. When 
Tarquin the Arrogant had outraged Collatinus it was his friend 
Brutus who came to his rescue, and when the despotic mon- 
archy had been overthrown there arose the Roman republic 
with the friends of Brutus and Collatinus as the first consuls. 
When John Hampden ''became the turning point in the course 
of the history of England" he was supported by two friends, 
Sir John Eliot and John Pym. The historian Green says: 
''The earliest struggles for parliamentary liberty centered in 
Sir John Eliot" and Foster says: "John Pym was the first 
great popular organizer of English politics." Yet Hampden 
is the one most honored. He became prominent through ex- 
pressing the convictions of these warm friends. Washington 
and Hamilton were close friends, and to the friendship of 
Hamilton, Washington owes a large measure of his success. 

The same is true in religion. With Timothy was Paul. 
With Augustine was Alypius. With Mohammed was Abu 
Beker, of whom Sprenger said: "He did more for the success 
of Islam than the prophet himself." With Anselm was Lan- 
franc; with Luther was Melanchthon ; and with Calvin was 
John Knox. 

Friendship has meant much in the development of Philoso- 
phy, as evidenced even by its beginnings. Crito was Socrates* 
friend. Socrates was Plato's friend. Plato was Aristotle's 
friend. And so we might review the list of the great thinkers 
in this field. 

The modern poets have felt the power of friendship. Goethe 
turned to Herder; Frau Von Stein, to Schiller; Tennyson, to 
Hallam ; Robert Browning, to Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 

The Number of Friends, Some raise the question whether 
one can have more than a few friends. They seem to empha- 



290 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

size the willingness of others to accept friendship, and the dif- 
ficulty one has of caring for more than a small number of 
friends. And it is generally true that a person has but few- 
friends in the higher sense in which this word can be used. 
Yet there is no good reason why the spirit of friendliness should 
not be the spirit of a man's life. If he has such a spirit he 
has left it with others to choose whether they will own and prize 
the friendship they are so generously offered. If one has a great 
capacity for friendship the number of his friends will be large 
and yet it will probably be true that a very limited number 
will be intimately acquainted with him. 

Conclusion, If friendship is made the working hypothesis 
of a man's life, and character set in its ways, all his social re- 
lations are determined by it and he finds himself a friend of 
men. He is en rapport with Lincoln who said: ^'Malice 
toward none and charity for all." To such it is given to see 
beyond the border of his own country and exercise a world's 
citizenship in relation to humanity. 

QUESTIONS 

It might be well to secure answers to the questions from 
people outside the school and thus supplement the opinions of 
the class. 

1. What is the ideal relation between teacher and pupil? 

2. Enumerate the qualities by which you may distinguish 
a friend from an associate. 

3. Will your friend steal the signals of an opposing foot- 
ball team for you? 

4. How does the question, "Am I worth knowing?" bear 
on friendship? 

5. Will your friend lie to keep you from being punished? 



The Friend 29 1 

6. Can you be a friend without having friends? 

7. Why must there be growth in the life of a friend? 

8. Must there be perfect agreement in the beliefs in friend- 
ship ? 

9. Give the qualities of character that destroy friendship. 

10. Do you make friends because they are useful to you? 

11. Does distance affect friendship? 

12. Does the length of time friends are separated affect 
friendship? 

13. Can you give one idea of justice that has been modi- 
fied by friendship? 

14. Give an illustration of how friendship has aided a man 
in politics. 

15. Give an illustration of the value of friendship in re- 
ligion. 

16. Show how it has aided in agriculture. 

17. How would you treat a man who lied about some one 
you know? 

18. How would you treat a man who injured some one 
you know? 

19. Should friendship have any bearing on the amount of 
work done by an employee? 

20. Should friendship influence the amount of your school 
work? 

21. What is the ideal relation between parent and child, 
and why? 

22. What is the ideal relation between woman and woman ? 

23. Does friendship bear on the low wages paid girl clerks 
in a department store? 

24. What should be the relation of the mistress to the cook 
and maid ? 

25. What should be the relation of an English section boss 
to Italian section hands? 



^9^ ^n Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

26. Does a friend envy his companions having better clothes 
and homes than himself? 

27. Is friendship possible where one does all the talking? 

28. What is the relation of a farm-hand to the members of 
the household? 

29. Can a person remain inactive and be a friend? 

30. If a man has bitterly wronged you, do you owe him 
anything other than justice? 

31. How do the following quotations help you to distin- 
guish between love and friendship? 

a. ''Friendship is nothing else than to be attached to 
the person whom you love, without any advantage 
being sought; although advantage springs up of it- 
self from friendship, even while you have not pur- 
sued it.'' 

b. Trumbull says: ''Love .... as we commonly em- 
ploy the term, when we speak of love as distinct 
from love of friendship, includes the idea of a reci- 
procal relation, existing or desired, between the one 
who loves and the one who is loved — the idea of 
possession or possessory interests, secured or sought 
after." 

32. Has meekness any value in friendship? 

33. Does society compel us to conform to the laws of 
friendship ? 



CHAPTER XXIX 



CONCLUSION 



Special Tasks Require Special Virtue, In the preceding 
chapters it has become evident that when engaged in a special 
task some one virtue is more necessary for its accomplishment 
than are others. The child owes obedience to its parents; the 
banker should be scrupulously honest in dealing with his cus- 
tomers; the editor should be truthful; the minister should be 
pure and sincere; the sacred confidence given in friendship 
should be loyally guarded; the attorney should persevere until 
he has ascertained the law in a case; the physician should be 
sympathetic; the judge should be just, and the athlete should 
be temperate in physical matters. Not that each person does 
not need many virtues common to others, but when life is 
largely spent in accomplishing some work the virtue naturally 
developed in connection w^ith the work is thrust into the fore- 
ground. Without the particular virtue which the calling de- 
mands there is no possibility of efficient service. The unjust 
judge cannot promote the interests of society; the soldier who 
is a coward cannot guard his country's honor, and the dishon- 
est banker is a menace. Our study has brought us to see that 
the moral life does not make exactly the same appeal to each 
person, but that when engaged in certain tasks virtues become 
necessary which otherwise might have lain dormant or have 
required little exercise. 

All Virtues are Needed by Each Person. Yet all the virtues 
are needed in each life. We may not need to be as brave as 
the soldier, yet many times we must be courageous. We need 
not realize physical suffering as does the physician, but it is 

293 



294 ^^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

often necessary for us to sympathize with those who are in 
pain. The whole day may not be spent in business transactions, 
yet many times it is required of us to be honest in business 
matters. There are times when we should deal justly, yet our 
profession may not be that of a judge. All the virtues need 
to be found in each life, yet not in the same proportion. There 
are some virtues which seem to be more common to all than 
others. Three of the fundamental virtues necessary to the 
moral life are honesty, perseverance and sympathy. 

Three Fundamental Virtues. In all life's activities a 
man should be honest. In business this means that a man's 
word once given is as good as a bond, and for that which is 
received a just equivalent is given, that no deception is practiced 
and that each man is given his dues. It is the fundamental 
virtue of business. It means that the individual treats others 
in a fair, candid, straightforward and upright manner. It 
means that one is pure in action, for not to be so would be to 
dishonor another as well as himself. It means that one's mo- 
tives are worthy and that he is following just principles in his 
conduct. In short, this word describes a virtue needed in all 
the relations to life. It covers what we mean when we say 
a man's conduct should be such that he can realize himself 
and promote the interests of others. It is not always easy to 
tell what we should do to serve others and develop ourselves, 
but whenever the way of such service is plain, or even partly 
so, then the honest man is the one who acts in the light of 
such knowledge, thereby promoting the welfare of all con- 
cerned. When a charity officer deals with a pauper, what is 
the honest thing to do? Is it not to restore his self-respect 
by securing him work, and to make him self-supporting? 
When a friend bestows a confidence, what is the honest thing 
to do if not to keep it sacred? When another's sister is in 
danger, what is the honest thing to do if not to protect her? 



Conclusion 295 

When a show is vulgar, what is the honest course of action 
but to leave it? And do not all these illustrations, with many 
others of which you may think, point to the same thing: name- 
ly, that the honest man is one whose conduct promotes the 
interests of society and himself? That man is honest who is 
governed in his conduct by the truth as it is known to him. 
And the truth is most readily found in the settled convictions 
of society. 

If a man's life is to count for the most he must have the 
virtue of perseverance. The man is of little use to society 
who can be diverted from his work. Such men break down 
opposition, and are not unduly aflfected by outside conditions. 
When the Japanese and Russians concluded the treaty of peace, 
the Japanese won, for they knew what they wanted and held 
out for it. Grant said, and it is a key to his success, ''There 
is a moment in every battle when, if you do not run, the other 
fellow will." The successful teacher is not easily turned from 
the subject in hand. That pitcher is lost who lets his mind 
wander from the game, when he heeds the jeers of the crowd. 
Weak men are ''jacks of all trades and masters of none," and 
for such society has slight regard. They do nothing so well 
that they are invaluable to society. The good attorney can 
persevere in his efforts until he ascertains the law in a contro- 
versy; the good surgeon is such because of an exacting appren- 
ticeship ; the good preacher is such after years of patient work ; 
the good engineer is one who has been thoroughly tried and 
found faithful; the good teacher studies every day; and the 
good friend is the lasting one. If a man is to do any work 
successfully, he must have the virtue of perseverance. 

Those who have this virtue have learned the real impera- 
tiveness of something. "May" and "could" have been dis- 
placed by "must." They have discovered what is meant by 
the imperative mood, first person, singular number and present 



296 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

tense. As they have striven to do the necessary things they 
have developed ability to overcome the inevitable difficulties 
that come to people, and have known the thrill of the extended 
testing that resulted in victory. Clerks, mechanics, farmers, 
and railway magnates, with all other persistent toilers, lay 
down their lives in doing the world's work. Every road, every 
tilled field, every city with its business blocks, every smelter, 
packing house and shipyard is a mute testimony to the perse- 
verance and sacrifice of labor. 

The virtue of sympathy is needed by all men. By sympathy, 
we mean the power to feel another's experiences as they ap- 
pear to him. It is the virtue of insight into the life of an- 
other as it is lived by the other person. The dramatist who 
writes a play that is true to life must be able to understand 
how other people look at their problems, and if he is to be suc- 
cessful in staging his production, he must realize how the pub- 
lic thinks and feels. The parent who is to train his child 
should be able to forget himself and enter into the child's life 
that he may determine how the child's problems appear to the 
child. The husband who would live most happily with his 
wife must cultivate the feminine viewpoint to the extent that 
he can appreciate his wife's desires and ideals. The student 
who is to master a subject must lay aside his prejudices and 
conceits, and think the thoughts of authors after them. He 
must bury himself in the lives of others before he can really 
have an opinion of his own which is worth while. The mer- 
chant who would not stock up with wares for which there will 
be no demand must have the insight to see what the people 
want, and to secure for them that which they desire rather 
than what he might think they should purchase. The min- 
ister must be able to give up his own ways and appreciate the 
will of God. The editor must have a fine sense of what con- 
stitutes the facts in the piece of news rather than what he may 



Conclusion 297 

desire to find in it. The charity worker must judge of mo- 
tives, whether the applicant is a professional beggar or a per- 
son in need of help. The teacher must be able to follow the 
turnings of the student's mind if he is to fit his teaching into 
the learner's experience. And so we could continue pointing 
out the need which exists for the appreciation of the experiences 
of other people, as they occur to them. Without the virtue of 
sympathy a person is handicapped in every relation of life. 
With it he has one of the fundamental virtues. In the insight 
of sympathy, when linked with honesty in action and persever- 
ance, there is a guarantee of a rich and useful life. Without 
the virtues of honesty, perseverance and sympathy no man can 
realize himself and promote the interests of others in the largest 
possible way. 

Skill, Skill is essential to an efficient life. Without it the 
worker cannot hope to succeed in a business way. The pro- 
fessional man who has skill is kept employed ; the laborer with 
skill is indispensable; the mother who has skill can best pro- 
mote the interests of society. Society has determined by ex- 
perience that the ordinary activities of people are essential to 
its well-being, and it rewards abundantly the individual who 
can meet its needs. Each of the virtues, honesty, perseverance 
and sympathy promote skill. While ability and moralit}^ are 
not the same thing it is true that with morality, skill is greatly 
increased; and it is certain that with morality, skill will be 
used for the advancement of society. 

The End of Life. Now it is a fair question to ask why 
should we seek these virtues or what after all is the end of 
life for us? Is it the realization of self in social service? Wp 
believe that each person should struggle to possess the Virtues 
approved by society because they are the means which promote 
self-realization and social welfare. How can we put a value 
on the money we may possess? Is it of worth other than as 



298 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

It promotes our welfare and the interest of others? How can 
we judge the worth of our culture? It is worth anything un- 
less It ends in our self-development and in the proper social 
advancement? Why should we desire a '^harmonious develop- 
ment'^ of our power except as such a life is useful to ourselves 
and others? Why should we be moral if not for the reason 
that when so we are realizing ourselves and thereby furthering 
the interests of society? We believe that in each life there are 
two problems, which in reality are one; namely, the life itself 
and society, and that the true service of one promotes the in- 
terests of the other. In serving society we come to knowledge 
of self ; and in preserving our personal lives physically, mentally, 
and morally we promote the interests of society. The man 
who lives first for self loses his life, for he has left society out 
of his reckoning. The man who promotes the welfare of others 
saves his life. \ : j I }; ■ ^ ij -'f 

Then in the whole round of life let us serve as professional 
men, as citizens, as business men, as parents and children, and 
as friends, for in so doing life is saved for us at every point 
where we serve. We think it fair to say the end of life for 
us all is the realization of self in the service of society. 

The Place of Pleasure in Life, Then if we ask the ques- 
tion ''Should not a man live for pleasure?" we can answer, 
"No." Experience teaches that men find pleasure in the ex- 
ercise of their powers, in self-realization, rather than in living 
for pleasure. We can illustrate this in the sphere of the phy- 
sical. In eating, pleasure follows the appeasing of the appetite ; 
and in drinking, pleasure follows the quenching of thirst. Now 
when we pass out of the physical into the mental what do we 
find? Pleasure comes to us while we are struggling to solve 
some problem or when it is completed. It follows the exercise 
of some power. The surgeon rejoices that the operation has 
been successful; the minister that he has ^ct^d wisely; the 



Conclusion 299 

statesman that he has served the state; and the parent that he 
has been true to his duty when he has served his child. In 
short, whenever we act in such a manner as to express our- 
selves in some way, then pleasure follows as a result of such 
action. If we live for self-realization through social service, 
then pleasure is one of the natural rewards of such conduct. 
Of course there may be pleasure in looking forward to some 
form of self-realization in which case we are only anticipating 
an exercise of some power. Or there may be pleasure in think- 
ing of the pleasure resulting from some action, but this ac- 
counts for only a small part of the pleasure of life. The bulk 
of our pleasure comes in anticipating self-realization or follows 
self-realization. 

Rewards and Penalties. There are some people who think 
it makes little difference whether they are virtuous or not as 
far as they are personally concerned. Such a view needs to 
be corrected and the most satisfactory way to set such people 
right is to point out to them that virtues are rewarded and 
vices punished. Does it make any difference whether a man 
is a glutton or not? If he is, then it is only a question of 
time until nature punishes him in the form of disease for the 
constant transgression of the virtue of temperance. The man 
who carelessly overeats may find himself an invalid for all 
practical purposes, unable to eat a fair meal and unfit for the 
common tasks of life. Does it make any difference whether a 
man is industrious? If he is, his natural reward is prosperity, 
and if not, the penalty is poverty. The reward of social vir- 
tue is wholesomeness, and the penalty of its transgression, 
degradation. The reward of truthfulness is confidence and 
the penalty of treason is anarchy. The reward of charity, is 
unity, and the penalty of indifference is strife. So we might 
pass through every phase of the moral life. Concerning this 
life it is written in large letters, ''Whatsoever a man soweth 



300 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

that shall he also reap," and the wages of sin is a loss of life, 
but the reward of virtue is a full life. Every person should 
get it clearly fixed in mind that the moral life is the one 
which is profitable in the long run and that the immoral life 
always exacts its penalties. That man is a fool who scoffs at 
virtue for he shows how little he appreciates the things that 
make for human welfare and how ignorant he is of the pen- 
alties that immorality inflicts. We should fear to do wrong 
for it costs us too much in the long run, and we should love 
to do right because right in the long run blesses all who heed 
her commands and do them. The laws of morality promote 
self-realization and social welfare and the rewards that follow 
conformity to them only make this more evident. 

The Highest Type of Morality. The good man is one who 
imposes upon himself those laws which aid him in self-realiza- 
tion. There are laws of nature, customs of society, individual 
ideals and religious beliefs which if accepted as standards of 
life lead to liberty and blessing. People pass through about 
three stages in gaining moral freedom. First, they live nat- 
urally and may recognize no restraints. Then they come to 
a consciousness of law and ofttimes rebel against it for awhile. 
Then they see that the law is a means of self-realization and 
claim it as their own. Where there is this free conformity to 
self-imposed law there is the highest type of morality. 

This book sets forth the moral laws commonly accepted by 
society and that student has gained real freedom who makes 
these laws his own and lives by them. 

QUESTIONS 

I. Was the purpose of this book to deal with the minor 
problems which people face in the life of the community, or 
was it to deal with their fundamental problems? 



Conclusion 301 

2. Point out with care how through any one chapter in 
this book the author has shown that the virtues mentioned 
arise in connection with the problems which people face. 

3. Point out in any one chapter in this book the advance- 
ments made in some form of social life. 

4. Do new problems often demand a restatement of what 
is right? 

5. Show in five instances that difJerent occupations empha- 
size various virtues. 

6. Are practically all the virtues needed in each life? 

7. What is meant by being honest? 

8. Show how honesty is required in business. 

9. Show how honesty is required in friendship. 

10. Show how honesty is required in the practice of medi- 
cine. 

11. Is honesty related to motives? 

12. Give two illustrations not found in the book, which 
show the value of perseverance. 

13. Give three illustrations not found in the book, which 
show the value of sympathy. 

14. Give illustrations not found in the book, which show 
the relation between skill and perseverance ; skill and sympathy ; 
and skill and honesty. 

15. What do you consider the end of life? 

16. How would you relate knowledge, wealth, culture, and 
physical health to that which you consider to be the end of 
life? 

17. What is the relation between happiness and the exer- 
cise of our powers? 

18. May there be pleasure in anticipating the realization 
of some purpose? 

19. Can it be shown that in most cases virtue is rewarded 
and vice punished? 



302 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

20. Is this the common experience of people? 

21. What is the relation between self-realization and con- 
formity to the laws of morality? 

22. Does conformity to the laws of morality enable us to 
promote the interest of others? 



COLLATERAL READINGS 



^COLLATERAL READINGS 

CHAPTER II. THE TEACHER 

Genetic Psychology, Judd; Talks on Psychology and Life's 
Ideals, James; Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching, 
Rowe; Educational Administration, Strayer & Thorndyke; 
The Ideal Teacher, Palmer ; The Teacher's Philosophy, Hyde ; 
The Personality of the Teacher, McKenny; the Status of the 
Teacher, Perry ; The Way to the Heart of the Pupil, Weimer ; 
Successful Teaching, Fifteen Studies by Practical Teachers; 
Every Day Problems in Teaching, O'Shea; Psychology and 
the Teacher, Munsterberg; Every Day Ethics, Cabot; The 
Essentials of Method, De Garmo; Elements of General 
Method, McMurray. 

Educational Review, 35:373; Educational Review, 37:217; 
Educational Review, 39:459; Harper's Magazine, 121:284; 
Independent, 64:582; Review of Reviews, 43:449; Review of 
Reviews, 43:455; Review of Reviews, 45:449; World's Work, 
18:11566; World's Work, 19:12221; Review of Reviews, 44: 
201; Review of Reviews, 44:327; World's Work, 19:12550; 
World's Work, 19:12715; World's Work, 12957; World's 
Work, 21:13965; World's Work, 21:14265; World's Work, 
22:14808; World's Work, 22:14721; World's Work, 23:318. 

CHAPTER III. THE STUDENT 

The unfolding of Personality, Mark; How to Study, Mc- 
Murray; Psychology as Applied to Education, Magnusson; 



*The magazine articles should be read first. The books mentioned 
are generally for advanced study. 

305 



3o6 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

School Hygiene, Fressler; Youth, Its Education, Regimen and 
Hygiene, Hall; Social Aspects of Education, King; Education 
for Social Efficiency, King; The Junior Republic, George; 
Moral Instruction and Training in School, Vols, I and II, 
Sadler. 

CHAPTER IV. THE PHYSICIAN 

Forty Years in the Medical Profession, Black; The Phy- 
sician Himself, Cathell; Doctors, Kipling; An Alabama Stu- 
dent and Other Biographical Essays, Osier; A Doctor's Sug- 
gestions to the Community, Roosa; The Doctor's Dilemma, 
Shaw; Principles of Medical Ethics of the American Medical 
Association, American Medical Association Press. 

North American Review, 188:753; North American Re- 
view, 189:223; Survey, 26:381; World's Work, 22:14441. 

CHAPTER V. THE LAWYER 

The American Judiciary, Baldwin; The Science of Law, 
Sheldon ; The Prisoner at the Bar, Train ; The American Com- 
monwealth, Bryce, Chap. loi ; Reports of the American Bar 
Association, Vol. 37, 1912; Canons of Ethics, pp. 1224-1234; 
American Advocacy, Robbins, Chap. 14. 

American Magazine, 69:499; Atlantic Monthly, 104:489; 
Atlantic Monthly, 104:698; Everybody's Magazine, 26:147, 
291, 439, 659, 827; Independent, 64:1330; Outlook, 89:992. 

CHAPTER VI. THE MINISTER 

Clergy in American Life and Letters, Addison; Future 
Leadership of Church, Mott; History of Preaching, Broadus; 
Throne of Eloquence, Hood; Manual of Preaching, Fisk; 



Collateral Readings 307 

Hints for Lay Preachers, Meyer; Preaching, Nichols; The 
Making of the Sermon, Pattison; Homiletics and Pastoral 
Theology, Shedd; Homiletics; or the Theory of Preaching, 
Vinet; Christian Institutions, Stanley; The Ideal Ministry, 
Johnson; The American Commonwealth, Bryce, Chap. 106. 

American Magazine, 69:177; American Magazine, 72:147; 
Atlantic Monthly, 104:93; Atlantic Monthly, 108:480; Cen- 
tury, 80:493; Century, 82:67; Century, 83:789; Everybody's 
Magazine, 19:47; Independent, 64:31; Independent, 64:344; 
Independent, 64:795; Living Age, 260:736; Outlook, 92:75, 
77, 79; Outlook, 98:35; Outlook, 98:634; Outlook, 26:909; 
World's Work, 22:14763. 

CHAPTER VII. THE EDITOR 

American Press, 1912, August, 13, p. 7; Editor and Pub- 
lisher, 1912, May 25, p. 6; American Press, 1912, Nov. 16, p. 
5; Editor and Publisher, 1912, June 22, p. 6; Educational Re- 
view, 36:121; Living Age, 267:515; Outlook, 98:253; Cen- 
tury, 82:824; Atlantic Monthly, 102:441; Atlantic Monthly, 
103:650; Atlantic Monthly, 105:145; 303; Atlantic Monthly, 
107:218; Educational Review, 36:121; McClure's Magazine, 
36:435; North American Review, 190:587; Outlook, 98:253. 

CHAPTER VIII. THE BANKER 

The Country Banker, Rae; Funds and Their Uses, Qeve- 
land; The Elements of Banking, MacLeod; Money and Bank- 
ing, Scott; Credit and Its Uses, Pendegrast; The Bank and 
The Treasury, Cleveland; The History of Modern Banks of 
Issue, Conant; Introduction of Economics, Johnson, Chapter 
14. 

Atlantic Monthly, 101:174; Independent, 64:914, 1025; 
Scribner's Magazine, 44:101; World's Work, 21:13605, 
13727. 



3o8 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

CHAPTER IX. TRADE 

The Science of Wealth, Hobson; Socialism in Theory and 
Practice, Hillquit; The Story of a Street, Hill; The Theory 
of Business Enterprises, Veblin; The Formation and Distribu- 
tion of Riches, Turgot; The Principles of Scientific Manage- 
ment, Taylor; Handbook of Labor Law of the United States, 
Stimson; Business and Education, Vanderlip; Psychology and 
Industrial Efficiency, Munsterberg; Ethics, Chapters 23-25; 
Dewey and Tufts; Influencing Men in Business Scott; In- 
creasing Efficiency in Business, Scott; Standards of Public 
Morality, Hadley. 

American Magazine, 70:535; Atlantic Monthly, 103:433; 
Century Magazine, 77:795; Atlantic Monthly, 110:447. 

CHAPTER X. CORPORATIONS 

The Rise and Progress of the Standard Oil Company, Mon- 
tague; The Problem of Monopoly, Clark; Combinations, 
Trusts and Monopolies, Nolan; Trusts, Pools and Corpora- 
tions, Ripley; American Corporations, Sullivan; Control of the 
Market; Wyman; Modern Business Corporations, Wood. 

American Magazine, 68:155; American Magazine, 71:691, 
302; Arena, 39:307; Atlantic Monthly, 101:9; Atlantic 
Monthly, 103:114; Century, 83:616; Independent, 64:384; 
McClure's Magazine, 36:334> 3> 123, 564; North American 
Review, 190:231, 195, 293; Outlook, 88:862, 94:760; Review 
of Reviews, 38:449; Survey, 27:1527; World's Work, 16: 
10571, 17:11386, 22:466, 14619, 23:579. 

CHAPTER XI. LABOR UNIONS 

Letters from a Workingman, An American Mechanic; 
Some Ethical Phases of the Labor Questions, Wright; Indus- 
trial America, Laughlin, Chap. Ill; Trade Unions, Drace; 



Collateral Readings 309 

The Future of Trades-Unionism and Capitalism, Eliot; Trade 
Unionism, New and Old, Howell. 

American Magazine, 72:545, 473; Atlantic Monthly, 103: 
145, 326, 543, 617, 104:469, 108:758; Century Magazine, 
80:728; Independent, 65:348, 460; North American Review, 
188:372, 189:771; Survey, 27:1685; World's Work, 22:1485, 
23:107, 409. 

CHAPTER XII. INSURANCE 

Insurance and Crime, Campbell; Yale Readings in Insur- 
ance, Zartman ; Yale Insurance Lectures, Vol. I ; Property In- 
surance, Hueber. 

Annals of American Academy, 38:23; Everybody's Maga- 
zine, 19:522; Independent, 64:707, 655; North American Re- 
view, 195:630; Survey, 24:237, 26:117, 357; World's Work, 
16:10311, 17:10980, 21:14083. 

CHAPTER XIII. WOMEN IN BUSINESS 

Women in Modern Society, Barnes; Why Women are So, 
Coolridge; The Woman of Tomorrow, Hard; Woman and 
Social Progress, Nearing; The Business of Being a Woman, 
Tarbell; The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, Schir- 
macher; Making a Business Woman, Monroe; Notable Wo- 
men in History, Abbot; Woman and Labor, Schreinir; Mak- 
ing Both Ends Meet, Clark and Wyatt; Woman in Industry, 
Abbot; Social Adjustment, Nearing, Chap. 6. 

American Magazine, 66:321, 68:502, 463, 73:689; Annals 
of American Academy, 37-19, 33, 49, 65, 79; Arena, 39-5^6; 
Literary Digest, 1913, Aug. 9, p. 199; Chautauquan, 64:89; 
Everybody's Magazine 19:798, 579, 708, 20:73, 236, 372, 
521, 23:767; Harper's Magazine, 120:651, 121 :22; Independ- 



3IO An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

ent, 64:1378; Journal of Political Economy, 16:602, 680, 17: 
19, 19:632; McClure's Magazine, 36:70, 201, 401, 708; Out- 
look, 99:1013; Survey, 26:65. 

CHAPTER XIV. POLITICAL PARTIES 

Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States, 
Woodburn; The Rise and Growth of American Politics, Ford; 
The American Caucus System, Lawton; The Democratic Mis- 
take, Sedgwick; Principles of Politics, Jenks; Politics and Ad- 
ministration, Goodnow; Party Organization and Machinery, 
Macy; The American Commonwealth, Bryce, Part III ; Stand- 
ards of Public Morality, Hadley. 

American Magazine, 68:292; Atlantic Monthly, 101:145; 
Everybody's Magazine, 23:813; Journal of Political Economy, 
16:693; McClure's, 38:28; North American Review, 190: 
158, 222. 

CHAPTERS XV AND XVIII. MUNICIPAL CONTROL AND THE CITY 

A Fight for the City, Hodder; The New City Government, 
Bruere; Modern Cities, Loomis; The Municipal Manual, 
Lauder; American Municipal Problems, Zuebbin; Great Cities 
in America, Wilcox; The American City, Wilcox; The Prob- 
lems of City Government, Rowe; The Dangers of Municipal 
Control, Porter; Government of American Cities, Deming; 
City Government in the United States, Goodnow; An Intro- 
duction to the Study of Society, Small and Vincent; Chapter 4. 

Annals of American Academy, 38:6; Atlantic Monthly, 
101:721, 104:601, 105:548, 107:433; Century, 80:663; Chau- 
tauquan, 64:386; Educational Review, 37:362; Outlook, 88: 
937, 89:142, 433, 655, 90:351, 93:153, 96:443, 98:477, 485; 
Review of Reviews, 39:77, 102, 42:189, 43:199, 44:451, 44: 



Collateral Readings 311 

572; Survey, 25:767, 26:720, 809; World^s Work, 16:10268, 
20:13408, 22:14494, 14612, 14725, 14831, 15000, 23:220, 
683; Annals of American Academy, 37:3; Everybody's, 20:170, 
23:1; Independent, 64:1139. 

CHAPTER XVI. PARENTS 

Home Making, Miller; Sociology, Dealey; Social Elements, 
Henderson; The Family, an Historical and Social Study, 
Thwing; A History of Matrimonial Institutions, Howard, Vol. 
Ill, Chapter XVIII; Ethics, Dewey & Tufts, Chap. XXVI; 
The Family in its Sociological Aspects, Dealey. 

American Magazine, 66:249, 67:548, 68:190; Annals of 
American Academy, 38:1 ; Atlantic Monthly, 10:289; 104:762; 
Cosmopolitan, 48:661; Independent, 64:1131, 1135, 1398, 65: 
750; McClure's Magazine, 38:625; North American Review, 
190:338; Outlook, 98:832, 100:274, 925. 

CHAPTER XVII. CHILDREN 

Education in Religion and Morals, Coe; Religious Educa- 
tion in the Home, Folsom; The Montessori Method, Montes- 
sori ; The Coming Generation, Frobush ; Talks With Children 
About Themselves, Barnard ; Fireside Child Study, DuBois ; 
Fundamentals of Child Study, Kirkpatrick; The Story of a 
Child, Loti; Child Culture in the Home, Mosher; Studies of 
Childhood, Sully; Children's Ways, Sully; The Child's Mind, 
Its Growth and Training, Urwick; The Nervous System of 
the Child, Warner; The Dawn of Character, Mumford ; Moral 
Instruction of Children, Adler. 

CHAPTER XIX. THE FARM 

The Rural Life Problem of the United States, Plunkett; 
The Rural Exodus, Graham; American Farmers, Elliot; Co- 



312 An Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

operation Among Farmers, Sturgis; Chapters of Rural Pro- 
gress, Butterfield ; The State and the Farmer, Bailey; The 
Training of the Farmer, Bailey; The Farmer's Business Hand- 
book, Roberts; The New Earth, Harwood; The Romance of 
the Reaper, Carson; Farm Management, Card; The Earth's 
Bounty, St. Maur; Constructive Rural Sociology, Gillette. 

Independent, 65:536; Journal of Political Economy, 16: 
299, 201; Outlook, 91:823, 826; World's Work, 23:59. 

CHAPTER XX. CHARITY 

The Practice of Charity, Devine; Principles of Relief, De- 
vine; Modern Methods of Charity, Henderson; Poverty, 
Hunter; American Charities, Warner. 

American Magazine, 70:214; Atlantic Monthly, 101:744, 
102:737; Century Magazine, 76:470; Everybody's Magazine, 
18:649; Harper's Magazine, 122:514, 123:31; Independent, 
64:53; Outlook, 88:123; 89:69, 97:904, 98:869; Survey, 24: 
281, 407, 25:179, 182, 237; World's Work Magazine, 16: 
10467, 23:177. 

CHAPTER XXI. THE CRIMINAL 

The Criminal, Ellis; Neurotic Disorders of Childhood, 
Rachford; Man and Woman, Ellis; Mental Defectives, Barr; 
Sanity and Insanity, Mercier ; Hypnotism, Bramwell ; Psycho- 
therapy, Munsterberg; The Diseases of the Will, Ribot; The 
Diseases of Personality, Ribot; Suggestion and Psychotherapy, 
Jacoby; Crime and its Repression, SchaflFenburg ; Penal Philos- 
ophy, Trade; The Individualization of Punishment, Saleilles; 
Modern Theories of Criminality, DeQuiros; Criminal Psy- 
chology, Gross; Crime, Its Causes and Remedies, Lombroso; 
Piinishment and Reformation, Wines; The Criminal, Ellis; 



Collateral Readings 313 

The Special Care of Backward Children, Witmer; Mentally 
Deficient Children, Shuttleworth & Potts. 

American Magazine, 72:351; 73*719, 533, 379, 285; At- 
lantic Monthly, 107:164, 108:170, 330; Everybody's Maga- 
zine, 18:753; McClure's Magazine, 31:358; North American 
Review, 188:383, 195:479; Outlook, 90:128, 92:551, 98:884; 
Review of Reviews, 44:76; Survey, 25:653, 761, 851. 

CHAPTER XXII. THE SALOON 

The Liquor Problem, The Committee of Fifty; Economic 
Aspects of the Liquor Problem, the Committee of Fifty; Sub- 
stitutes for the Saloon, The Committee of Fifty; A Century 
of Drink Reform in the United States, Fehlandt; Profit and 
Loss in Man, Hopkins; Inebriety, Palmer; Prohibition, Its 
Relation to Good Government, Debar. 

Literary Digest, 1913, August 9, p. 198; Century, 81:39; 
Cosmopolitan, 44:492, 549, 554, 558; Independent, 65:243; 
McClure's Magazine, 31:704, 32:i54, 30i, 419, 33:426, 528: 
Survey, 25 :46. 

CHAPTER XXIII. MENTAL HYGIENE 

Psychology, James, Chapters 10-22; Outlines of Psychology, 
Royce, Chapters 8-13; Psychology, Judd, Chapters 8-1 1; A 
First Book in Psychology, Calkins, Chapters 4-10; Introduction 
to Psychology, Calkins, Chapters 14-18; Ebbinhaus^s Psychol- 
ogy, Meyer, Chapters 14-17; The Psychology of Suggestion, 
Sidis; The Education of Self, Dubois, Chapters 2, 8. 

CHAPTER XXIV. EMOTIONAL HYGIENE 

Psychology, James, Chapter 24; Outlines of Psychology, 
Royce, Chapters 7, 14; A First Book in Psychology, Calkins, 



314 A^ Inductive Study of Standards of Right 

Chapter 1 1 ; Introduction to Psychology, Calkins, Chapter 20 ; 
Ebbinhaus^s Psychology, Meyer, Chapter 20; The Psychology 
of Faith and Fear, Sadler ; The Education of the Will, Knowl- 
son; The Education of the Will, Payot; The Diseases of the 
Will, Ribot; The Education of Self, Dubois, Chapters i, 17; 
Adolescense, Hall, Vol. 2, Chapters 11, 12; The Hygiene of 
the Mind, Clouston, Chapter 7. 

CHAPTER XXV. VOLITIONAL HYGIENE 

Psychology, James, Chapter 26; Outlines of Psychology, 
Royce, Chapter 15; Psychology, Judd, Chapter 13; A First 
Book in Psychology, Calkins, Chapter 12; Introduction to 
Psychology, Calkins, Chapter 21; Ebbinhaus's Psychology, 
Meyer, Chapters 21, 22; The Direction of Desire, Bligh; The 
Education of Self, Dubois, Chapter III. 

CHAPTER XXVI. PLAY 

Athletics, Public School Athletic League; An Athletic 
Primer, Sullivan ; Amusements, Hayden ; Hygiene of the Mind, 
Clouston, Chapter g ; Youth, Its Regimen and Hygiene, Chap- 
ter 6, Hall; Educational Problems, Chapter 2, Hall. 

American Magazine, 68:41, 70:504, 545; Atlantic Monthly, 
103:672, 107:350; Edinburgh Review, 215:383; Everybody's 
Magazine, 18:455, 19:378; Harper's Magazine, 118:878; 
Outlook, 96:311; Survey, 24:548, 26:345, 383; World's 
Work, 17:11384, 22:14927; American Magazine, 68:107, 29, 
401, 72:724. 321, 83; Atlantic Monthly, 105:700, 106:607; 
Century, 76:634, 80:269, 545, 323, 820; Educational Review, 
35:170, 38:488, 39:144, 40:132, 42:162; Review of Reviews, 
45:582. 



Collateral Readings 315 

CHAPTER XXVII. MANNERS 

Boys and Girls and Manners, Hall ; Etiquette for Americans, 
A Woman of Fashion. 

Atlantic Monthly, 107:702; Century Magazine, 82:466; 
81:797, 475, 157, 881, 83:173; World's Work Magazine, 22: 
14677. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. FRIENDS 

Friendship, Hugh Black; The Laws of Friendship, Human 
and Divine, King; Bacon's Essay, With Annotations by 
Whately, pp. 280-297; Essays, First Series, Emerson, pp. 181- 
206; Essays, Montaigne, Vol. H, pp. 82-102; Gentle Art of 
Pleasing, Glover; Entering on Life, Geilie; Friendship, the 
Master Passion, Trumbull. 



SUBJECT-INDEX 



Action, 243 

Adolescence, the high school pe- 
riod, 33 
Adv<°rtiser, protection of, 78 
Advertising, 77 
Aesthetic feelings, 247 
Amusements and play, 272 
Athletics, 37; in high school, 

273 

Attention, 238 

Attorney, and the client, rela- 
tion to each other, 57 ; his 
relation to other attorneys, 
60; unjust causes, 61 ; con- 
fidence between him and 
his client, 62 

Audit Bureau of Circulations, 

78 

Bank, is a business, 83 ; safe 
loans, 83 ; credits, 83 ; 
character, 84; age of bor- 
rower, 84; amount ad- 
vanced, 84 

Banker, retain and secure cus- 
tomers, 84; increase de- 
posits, 84; ready money, 
84 ; speculation, 85 ; local 
business, 85 ; reform need- 
ed, 86; his virtues, 86 and 

87 

Benevolence, forms of, 205 
Boycott, the, 117 
Boy Scouts, 282 
Brokers, 94 



Business success, 282 

Capital, competition between 
capital and capital, 95 

Charity, 52, 203; Christian 
principles, 203 ; results of 
promiscuous and thought- 
less giving, 207 ; extent, 
207; object, 208; modern 
charity, 209 

Child labor, 93 

Children, problems in rearing, 
166; family central in 
child training, 172; moral- 
ity, 172-180; groups of 
children, 175 

City, the great social center, 
185; difficulties of moral 
living, 186; viewed as su- 
perior to the country, 188; 
city mind, 189; strong 
men of city imitated by 
many, 190 

Church, the rural, 194 

Clergyman, aim and method, 
65 ; problems : self satis- 
faction, 66; men, 66; 
amusements, 66 ; social, 
67; salary, 68; Virtues: 
purity, 68 ; honesty, 68 ; 
truthfulness, 68 ; indepen- 
dence, 69 ; earnestness, 69 ; 
sacrifice, 69; charity, 69 

Co-education, 39 

Community, the, 41 ; life of 
the community, 11 



317 



3i8 



Subject-Index 



Competition, between capital 
and capital, 95 

Conception, the biological, 255 

Consultations, 50-51 

Co-operation, in the school, 41 

Corporations, growth of, 100; 
differences between, loi ; 
created by law and indi- 
vidual initiative, 102; ben- 
efits of , 103; evils of , 104; 
control of, 105 ; advance- 
ment, 106 

Counsel, 49 

Crimes, classes of, 212; causes 
of, 215; group crimes, 
219 

Criminal, the, 15; definition of, 
213; types of, 213; phys- 
ical and mental traits, 216; 
methods of treating, 217; 
advancements, 218; inde- 
terminate sentence, 219; 
legal procedure, 219 

Discipline, 28, 36 
Divorce, 168 

Editor and the public, 72; his 
difficulty of getting accu- 
rate news, 73 ; what con- 
stitutes news, 74 
Education, aim of, 23 ; by 
school, 23 ; from environ- 
ment, 23; education, 155 
Emerson on personality, 29 
Emotions, worth of, 251 
Eugenics, marriage law, 168 

Family life, dangers of, 164 



Farm, the advancements of the, 
198 

Farmer, as a neighbor, 192; 
business relations, 195; his 
family, 196; hired help, 

197 

Feelings, their relation to rea- 
son, 252; aesthetic, 247; 
intellectual, 248; personal, 
248 

Firmness, 47 

Fraternities, 38 

Freedom, 255 

Friend, uses of term, 285 ; con- 
ditions that make for unity 
of life, 285 ; conformity to 
fundamental moral laws, 
286; conformity to the 
finer social laws, 287 ; num- 
ber of, 289 

Friendship, need of, 288; as a 
practical force, 289 

Government, in small villages 
and rural communities, 195 

Growth, changes many ideals, 
15 

Habit, 239, 260 
Hygiene, public, 52-53 

Immigration, 93 
Individual differences, 27 
Industry, presence of women in, 

116 
Initiative, 258 
Instincts, 246 
Insurance, promotes business, 

125; reforms, 127; re- 



Subject-Index 



319 



duces risk, 120; extent, 
120; variety of, 121; re- 
lation to business, 121; re- 
lation to the family, 122; 
principles of, 123; forms 
of, 124; agents, 126 

Intellectual feelings, 248 

Interference, 51 

Internal Revenue Act of 1862, 
225 

James-Lange theory of emo- 
tions, 251 

Kansas City Board of Public 

Welfare, 210 
Knowledge, fields of, 25 

Labor Unions, growth of, no; 
causes, no; advantages 
of, 112; weapons used by 
unions, 114; agreements, 
117; politicians, 117; ad- 
vancements, 118 

Lawyer, development of the, 
55 ; classes of, 55 ; the law- 
yer and the judge, 58 

Leadership, of the teacher, 29 

Liquor, amount consumed, 226 

Manners, smoking, 280; chap- 
erons, 280; business, 28- 
i; dress, 281; right spir- 
it, 281 ; business success, 
282; reasons for, 276; va- 
riations in, 276; as a 
means of self-expression, 
277; introductions, 277; 
calls, 278 ; invitations. 



278; conversations, 279; 

telephoning, 280 
Marriage, historical factors, 163 
Mental development, 268 
Medical student, the, 47 
Meditation, 257 
Memory, 240 
Moral life, 269 
Moral value of literature, 33 ; 

of history, 34; manual 

work, 34; household arts, 

34 

Morality, relation to skill, 297 

Morality, highest type, 300 

Morality, 50 

Morals, importance of, 1 1 ; 
morals, 16. 

Morality, growth, 12 

Municipal control, extent of 
the interests of a city gov- 
ernment, 153; growth, 
153; water supply, 154; 
transportation, 154; amuse- 
ments of city, 155; educa- 
tion, 155; tenements, 155; 
charities, 156; police cor- 
ruption, 157; taxes, 157; 
civic improvement, 158; 
control of public utilities, 

158 

News, 74 

Newspapers, suggest scandal 
and crime, 75 ; news not 
specially noted in it, 76 ; 
its policy, 76 ; its history, 
77; advertising, 77; ad- 
vance movements, 78 

Open-mindedness, 242 



3^o 



Subject-Index 



Parents, marriage, 163; dan- 
gers to family life, 164; 
parenthood, 1 66 ; prob- 
lems in rearing children, 
166; large families, 167; 
advancements, 168 

Penalties, 299 

Perception, 237 

Personality, development of the, 
29 

Philanthropy, as a profession, 
208 ; problems of, 209. 

Physical education, 267 

Physical training, 37 

Physician, preparation, 47 ; firm- 
ness, 47-48; secrecy, 48; 
sympathy, 48-49 ; notice of 
danger, 49; counsel, 49- 
50; temperance, 50; vis- 
its, 50; consultations, 50- 
5 1 ; interference, 5 1 ; split 
fee, 51-52; quacks, 52; 
charity, 52; public hy- 
giene, 52-53 

Play, instinctive form of action, 
267 ; a means of physical 
education, 267; an instru- 
ment of mental develop- 
ment, 268; moral life 
strengthened, 269; grades 
of 270; relation to v^ork, 
271 ; high school problems, 
273 ; jokes, 273 ; play and 
amusements, 272 

Pleasure, 298 

Police corruption, 157 

Political parties, definition of, 
143; growth of, 143; dis- 
advantages of, 146; ad- 



vantages, 148; rise of, 150; 

advancements, 151 
Politicians, 149 
Poverty, causes of, 204, 208; 

methods of relief, 205; 

conditions of, 209 
Prohibition, growth of, 223, 

aim of the prohibitionists, 

228 
Pupil, development of the per- 
sonality of the, 29 
Purposes, 257 
Purpose of this book, 13 

Quacks, 52 

Readings, 243 
Religion, defined, 64 
Rewards, 299 

Saloon, amount of liquor con- 
sumed in the, 226; as a 
social center, 226; its re- 
lation to the ''down and 
out,'^ 227 ; attitude toward 
law and politics, 228; re- 
lation to criminals, 230; 
reform organizations and 
measures, 230; aim of the 
prohibitionists, 228 ; sub- 
stitutes for, 231 

School, co-operation in, 41 ; the 
rural, 194 

Secrecy, 48 

Shop, closed, 116 

Skill, relation to morality, 297 

Spencer, his conception of the 
ultimate man, 190 

Split fee, 51 



Subject-Index 



321 



Strike, the, 114 

Student, the, 19; his point of 
view, 26; his relation to 
the family, 40; suggestions 
to the, 42 

Sympathy, 48 

Taxes, 157 

Teacher, primary task of the, 
23 ; his need of special 
knowledge, 25 ; develop- 
ment of individuality, 29 ; 
the teacher, 35; sugges- 
tions to the, 27 

Teaching, 23 

Temperance, 50 

Theories, special, 13; general, 

14 

Thinking, 241 

Trade, early ideal of, 90; prob- 
lem in modern trade, 91 ; 



competition, 91 ; value of 
character, 96 ; new ideals, 
97 
Unity, of race, 64 
Utah^s pension law, 210 

Virtue, special tasks require 
special virtues, 293 ; all 
virtues needed by each per- 
son, 293 ; three funda- 
mental virtues, 294 

Will, the obstructed, 259; the 
impulsive, 260 

Women in business, in indus- 
try, 130; change in her 
work, 131; physical con- 
ditions, 132; economic and 
moral conditions, 133; 
competition with men, 135 ; 
the home, 136; necessity, 
136; advancements, 137 



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